古希腊挽歌诗人将春花比喻为“青春之花”(flower of youth),用来传达生命短暂的概念,暗示死亡很快就会到来。而荷马史诗的相关段落则将人生的黄金时期与植物的繁茂联系起来。
《伊利亚特》(Iliad)第十二章,有一个将树木的形象与战士的力量联系起来的最明显的例子。特洛伊军队试图驾战车冲向阿开亚人(Achaean)的防御工事,遭到了顽强抵抗,“因为他们在城门口发现了两位最英勇、心高气傲的拉庇泰人长矛兵之子,一位是坚强的波吕波忒斯,佩里托俄斯之子,另一位是里昂透斯,堪比人类的祸害阿瑞斯(即古希腊神话中的血腥嗜杀的战神)。这两位战士在高门前站得笔直,就像山间高耸的橡树,日复一日地经受着风雨的侵袭,根系又大又长;即便如此,这两位战士仍相信自己武器的威力,顶住了伟大的阿西乌斯的进攻,没有逃跑。”
(for at the gate they found two warriors most valiant, high-hearted sons of Lapith spearmen, the one stalwart Polypoetes, son of Peirithous, and the other Leonteus, peer of Ares the bane of men. These twain before the high gate stood firm even as oaks of lofty crest among the mountains, that ever abide the wind and rain day by day, firm fixed with roots great and long; even so these twain, trusting in the might of their arms, abode the oncoming of great Asius, and fled not.)
同样的比喻也用于特洛伊最重要的盟友之一萨尔佩冬(Sarpedon)。《伊利亚特》第十六章,大英雄阿喀琉斯(Achilles)青梅竹马的好友帕特洛克勒斯(Patroclus)带领阿开亚人在战壕中屠杀特洛伊人,帕特洛克勒斯杀死了宙斯之子萨尔佩冬,“他倒下,就像山中的橡树、杨树或高大的松树一样,被造船工人用磨尖的斧头砍下用来造船; 即便如此,他还是躺在他的马和战车前,大声呻吟,紧紧抓住血淋淋的尘土。”(And he fell as an oak falls, or a poplar, or a tall pine, that among the mountains shipwrights fell with whetted axes to be a ship's timber; even so before his horses and chariot he lay outstretched, moaning aloud and clutching at the bloody dust.)
(橡树)
《伊利亚特》第十四章,艾阿斯(Aias)向特洛伊最伟大的英雄赫克托尔(Hector)投掷石头,“击中赫克托尔的胸口,越过盾牌边缘,重重地击中他的脖子,让他像陀螺一样旋转,不停地旋转。就像在父亲宙斯的轰击下,一棵橡树被连根拔起,一股可怕的硫磺臭气从中升起——目睹这一切,站在旁边的人不再有勇气,唯恐这是伟大的宙斯的闪电——就像这样让强大的赫克托尔立刻倒在地上,倒在尘土中。”
(smote Hector on the chest over the shield-rim, hard by the neck, and set him whirling like a top with the blow; and he spun round and round. And even as when beneath the blast of father Zeus an oak falleth uprooted, and a dread reek of brimstone ariseth therefrom—then verily courage no longer possesseth him that looketh thereon and standeth near by, for dread is the bolt of great Zeus—even so fell mighty Hector forthwith to the ground in the dust.)
橡树是希腊自然环境中最坚固的树木之一,荷马诗人在以上段落中把埃阿斯攻击的强大力量比喻为宙斯的闪电,战胜了如橡树般坚定的战士赫克托尔,甚至将一棵橡树连根拔起,让旁观者感到恐惧。
我们再来进一步研究荷马诗人是如何运用植物意象(尤其是花卉意象)来形容战士的死亡的。
《伊利亚特》第四章,“随后,忒拉蒙的埃阿斯击倒了安提米翁的儿子,精力充沛的青年西莫伊西俄斯。有一次,他的母亲跟随父母照看他们的羊群,从伊达山下山的途中,在西莫瓦河岸边生下了他。因此,他们给他取名为西莫伊西俄斯;然而,他并没有报答他亲爱的父母对他的养育之恩,他的生命也很快消逝,因为他被心胸宽广的埃阿斯用长矛刺倒了。 当他大步走在最前面时,他的右乳附近被击中;铜枪穿透了他的肩膀,他倒在地上,像一棵在大沼泽地底部生长的白杨树,树干光滑,树枝从树顶长出。 一些车匠用闪闪发光的铁器砍倒了这棵树,以便把它弯曲成一个用于漂亮的战车的轮辋,而这棵树现在躺在河岸边晾干。”
(Then Telamonian Aias smote Anthemion's son, the lusty youth Simoeisius, whom on a time his mother had born beside the banks of Simois, as she journeyed down from Ida, whither she had followed with her parents to see their flocks. For this cause they called him Simoeisius; yet paid he not back to his dear parents the recompense of his upbringing, and but brief was the span of his life, for that he was laid low by the spear of great-souled Aias. For, as he strode amid the foremost, he was smitten on the right breast beside the nipple; and clean through his shoulder went the spear of bronze, and he fell to the ground in the dust like a poplar tree that hath grown up in the bottom land of a great marsh, smooth of stem, but from the top thereof branches grow: this hath some wainwright felled with the gleaming iron that he might bend him a felloe for a beauteous chariot, and it lieth drying by a river's banks.)
(杨树)
杨树的硬度不如橡树,却适合被人工弯曲用来制造战车。此文将年轻柔弱的士兵西莫伊西俄斯比做河岸边的一棵杨树,他的力量虽然无法与上文的几位坚定如橡树的大英雄相比,却已强壮到可以在战场上冲锋陷阵。西莫伊西俄斯的生命短暂,无法报答父母的养育之恩,就像一棵被砍掉了用于制造轮辋的杨树不再能延续后代,荷马诗人将植物的生育力与人类的生育力联系在一起。
荷马诗人在描述战士之死时,还引入了花卉意象。
《伊利亚特》第十七章,斯巴达国王国王墨涅拉俄斯(Menelaus)杀死了特洛伊战士欧福尔波斯(Euphorbus),“他砰的一声倒下,铠甲在身上铿锵作响。他的头发浸透了鲜血,就像美惠三女神的头发,他的发绺上镶着金银。就像一个人在水源充足的荒凉之地培育了一棵茁壮的橄榄幼树 -- 一棵长势良好的幼树;狂风呼啸,它颤抖着,开出了白色的花朵;但突然间,狂风携猛烈的风暴袭来,把它从壕沟里拔出来,倒在地上。”
(And he fell with a thud, and upon him his armour clanged. In blood was his hair drenched, that was like the hair of the Graces, and his tresses that were braided with gold and silver. And as a man reareth a lusty sapling of an olive in a lonely place, where water welleth up abundantly—a goodly sapling and a fair-growing; and the blasts of all the winds make it to quiver, and it burgeoneth out with white blossoms; but suddenly cometh the wind with a mighty tempest, and teareth it out of its trench, and layeth it low upon the earth;)
(橄榄树开花)
此文用橄榄幼树来比喻对青年战士的培养,欧福尔波斯是第一个击倒强大的帕特洛克勒斯的战士,可见其勇气和武艺之非凡。欧福尔波斯是一株开花了的橄榄树,具有强大的生育力,可是墨涅拉俄斯却像吹倒树木的暴风一样不可抗拒,无情摧毁了这棵树,使其无法如常结果。植物的生育力再次与人类的生育力联系在一起。
《伊利亚特》第八章,希腊联军的勇士透克洛斯(Teucer)想要射死赫克托尔,“然而他射偏了,却射中了无与伦比的戈尔吉修翁的胸膛,那是普里阿摩斯英勇的儿子,他的母亲是来自埃西梅的美丽的卡斯蒂亚内拉,外形酷似女神。他把头歪向一边,像花园里结满果实和沾满春雨的虞美人一样;他戴着头盔的头也歪向一边。”
(Howbeit him he missed, but peerless Gorgythion he smote in the breast with his arrow, Priam's valiant son, that a mother wedded from Aesyme had born, even fair Castianeira, in form like to the goddesses. And he bowed his head to one side like a poppy that in a garden is laden with its fruit and the rains of spring; so bowed he to one side his head, laden with his helmet.)
(虞美人)
我查了一下,荷马史时期希腊原生的poppy是Papaver rhoeas(虞美人),一年生草本植物。虞美人花色深红,初春开花,果实比较小,大约一厘米左右,果实上面有绒毛,是下垂的。而国人熟知的Papaver somniferum(罂粟)是通过丝绸之路从东亚传到地中海地区的,罂粟的花期在初夏,果实大概有4至7厘米宽,果实比较光滑、直立。某些当代读者不熟悉虞美人与罂粟的区别,也搞不清植物迁徙史,将此文中的poppy理解为“罂粟”,是不正确的。
(罂粟花)
古希腊植物学家注意到虞美人产量惊人,根据古希腊科学家泰奥弗拉斯托斯的说法,小茴香(cumin)和虞美人是所有植物中产量最高的。虞美人本是农田里的杂草,却出现在花园里,说明是被人用心栽培的,暗喻合格的战士也是需要精心培养的。虞美人已经产生了如此多的种子,果实不堪重负,在春雨的浸润下深深垂下了头,却被无情的暴力摧毁,暗喻本该繁荣昌盛的家族从此绝嗣并衰落下去。
我们还可以从《奥德赛》中的开花草地来了解花卉与死亡的联系。
《奥德赛》第十二章,奥德修斯警告他的手下:“你首先要去见塞壬(希腊神话中的女妖),她们 会欺骗所有来找她们的人。谁在无知中走近她们,听到塞壬的声音,就再也不会回来,他的妻子和孩子可能会站在他身边欢呼雀跃,但塞壬会用她们清脆的歌声欺骗他, 她们坐在草地上,周围是一大堆腐烂的人的骨头,骨头周围的皮肤正在皱缩。”
(To the Sirens first shalt thou come, who beguile all men whosoever comes to them. Whoso in ignorance draws near to them and hears the Sirens' voice, he nevermore returns, that his wife and little children may stand at his side rejoicing, but the Sirens beguile him with their clear-toned song, as they sit in a meadow, and about them is a great heap of bones of mouldering men, and round the bones the skin is shrivelling.)
在古希腊听众的认知中,草地是希腊景观中特别肥沃的元素,为大量植物和动物提供了生存环境,让人联想到一种非凡的生育力。在夏季高温下,希腊的其他地方很快就会变得干旱,但草地却能保持湿润。奥德修斯提到塞壬的草地,将它与死亡的危险密切关联。
《奥德赛》第十一章还出现了当今读者熟悉的“水仙草地”(meadows of asphodel,中文版大多译为“水仙平原”),那是死者的灵魂聚集之地。“asphodel”一词有两种解释:一是ash(灰),ash meadow 即堆满死人骨灰的草地,这很符合古希腊人死后火葬的习俗。二是ashen ,这个形容词会让古希腊的听众联想到某种开着灰白色花的植物,从这个角度分析,Asphodel 很有可能是两种希腊野花:Asphodelus albus (白阿福花)或白色的水仙花(英文单词“daffodil,其字根源自“asphodel”),故asphodel meadow 很可能指的是阿福花平原或水仙平原。
总的来说,古希腊人是惧怕死亡的。《奥德赛》第十章,奥德修斯请求女巫喀耳刻(Circe)帮助他返家,女巫告诉他:“但你必须先完成另一趟旅程,来到冥王和可怕的珀尔塞福涅的家,寻求底比斯盲人先知泰瑞西阿斯的灵魂的预言,他的思想坚定不移。即使在他死后,珀尔塞福涅也赋予了他理智,只有他才应该有理解力;但其他人却像影子一样四处飞舞。”
(but you must first complete another journey, and come to the house of Hades and dread Persephone, to seek soothsaying of the spirit of Theban Teiresias, the blind seer, whose mind abides steadfast. To him even in death Persephone has granted reason, that he alone should have understanding; but the others flit about as shadows.)
可见冥界里的灵魂只是死者的影像,有着虚无的外观。《奥德赛》第十一章,奥德修斯来到冥界后,发现这些灵魂在无意识地游荡,阿伽门农(Agamemnon )和安提克勒娅(Anticleia,奥德修斯的母亲)只有在喝了奥德修斯献给他们的动物的血后才能认出他(即恢复了意识)。奥德修斯真真切切地感受到这种虚无感,他想去拥抱死去的母亲的灵魂,三次向她扑去,她三次像影子或梦一样(like a shadow or a dream)从他的怀抱中飞走。奥德修斯心里的痛苦越来越强烈,他问母亲:“你为什么不留下来陪我,我渴望拥抱你,即使在冥府,我们两个也可以拥抱在一起,尽情地悲伤。难道这只是尊贵的珀尔塞福涅派给我的一个幻影,让我更加悲叹和呻吟?”(why dost thou not stay for me, who am eager to clasp thee, that even in the house of Hades we two may cast our arms each about the other, and take our fill of chill lamenting. Is this but a phantom that august Persephone has sent me, that I may lament and groan the more? )母亲答:“宙斯的女儿珀尔塞福涅绝不会欺骗你,这是凡人死后的必然结局。筋骨不再能将肉和骨头连在一起,但烈火的强大威力会摧毁它们,生命一旦离开白骨,灵魂就会像梦一样飞走,来回飘荡。”(in no wise does Persephone, the daughter of Zeus, deceive thee, but this is the appointed way with mortals when one dies. For the sinews no longer hold the flesh and the bones together, but the strong might of blazing fire destroys these, as soon as the life leaves the white bones, and the spirit, like a dream, flits away, and hovers to and fro.)
这段描述有助于我们理解为什么荷马诗人会将灵魂置放于开着灰白色花的草地中,灰白色花有助于古希腊听众形象地脑补出灰色的、虚无的灵魂的外观。冥界之旅即将结束,“但那时无数的死者部落蜂拥而至,发出一声奇妙的叫喊,我(奥德修斯)吓得脸色苍白,生怕威严的珀尔塞福涅会从冥王之家派出那可怕的怪物 -戈尔贡的头颅来袭击我。”(but ere that the myriad tribes of the dead came thronging up with a wondrous cry, and pale fear seized me, lest august Persephone might send forth upon me from out the house of Hades the head of the Gorgon, that awful monster.)他立即去了船,命令他的同伴们上船,解开船尾的缆绳,驶回了人间。
(蛇发女妖)
戈尔贡是一种长有尖牙、头生毒蛇的女性怪物。在希腊文化里,戈尔贡的面具象征着死亡是终极的恐怖。奥德修害怕他可能会被困在冥界,变得像他眼前看到的虚无缥缈的阴影一样,没有生命,没有人类的身份。 而蛇发女妖戈尔贡有能力将这种恐惧变成现实——她会夺走任何试图在活着的时候进入死者世界的凡人的生命。
荷马的许多死亡花卉形象又与古希腊神话中对怪物的描述相呼应。所谓怪物,就是无序的生物,就像荷马诗歌中的无序生育的花朵一样,它们不尊重正常的繁殖方式。无序生长的花朵与怪物的出现,都是对既定秩序的挑战。
我们再来分析一下《伊利亚特》第八章中的戈尔吉修翁之死,诗人把他的死形容为头歪向一边的虞美人。Gorgythion 这个名字的词根让人想起了怪物戈尔贡Gorgon。同一章节,高尔吉翁死后不久,诗人描述了他的同父异母的哥哥赫克托尔的因战争而疯狂的眼睛,“他的眼睛就像凡人的祸害戈尔贡或阿瑞斯的眼睛。”(his eyes were as the eyes of the Gorgon or of Ares, bane of mortals.)这句话明确地提到了戈尔贡。前后文相对照,我们有理由推断荷马诗人将虞美人与怪物相关联。
无独有偶,与荷马诗人几乎同时代的希腊抒情诗人斯特西克鲁斯(Stesichorus,公元前640年—前555年)也将三头怪物格里翁(Geryon)与虞美人的形象联系起来。当赫拉克勒斯(Heracles)的箭射中三头怪的第一个头时,“然后,格里翁把脖子歪向一边,就像一朵虞美人,羞辱了它娇嫩的身体,突然落下了花瓣……”(Ger[yon] then leaned his neck/to one side, as when a p[o]pp[y/which, shaming its tender [body,/ suddenly casts off its petals …” 罂粟花将头歪向一侧的形象更适合描述多头怪物,虽然格里翁的第一个头死了,但他多头身体的其余部分仍然活着,所以我们完全可以预料到它会像一个装满种子的虞美人果实一样摇晃。可以说,荷马诗人用罂粟花歪着头的形象来描述战士的死亡,斯特西科鲁斯和其他古希腊诗人也用同样的形象来描述怪物的死亡。
(三头怪)
戈尔吉修翁之前没有显赫战功,似乎不是一个能与可怕的怪物相提并论的人。他是被一心想要射杀赫克托尔的希腊勇士透克洛斯误杀的。显然荷马诗人并非用怪物来形容牺牲了的战士,他们将战士之死与虞美人花联系在一起,意在强调死亡的恐怖,死亡是所有人(无论强者还是弱者)都必须面对的事情。
《奥德赛》第十一章中,想到戈尔贡被砍下的头颅,奥德修斯心中产生了对死亡的恐惧,并迫使他逃离冥界。《伊利亚特》第十四章也有一段相类似的恐怖描述:“这时,佩内利俄斯击中了他(特洛伊的莱康Lycon)的眉毛,刺入他的眼窝,将眼球拔出,箭杆穿过他的眼睛和颈背,他倒在地上,伸出双手。佩内利俄斯拔出利剑,猛击他的脖子,将他戴着头盔的头砍倒在地,那支巨大的长矛仍刺入他的眼睛;他高高举起,像举起虞美人头,向特洛伊人展示”,(Him then did Peneleos smite beneath the brow at the roots of the eyes, and drave out the eyeball, and the shaft went clean through the eye and through the nape ot the neck, and he sank down stretching out both his hands. But Peneleos drawing his sharp sword let drive full upon his neck, and smote off to the the ground the head with the helmet, and still the mighty spear stood in the eye; and holding it on high like a poppy-head he shewed it to the Trojans),目睹这惨烈的一幕,特洛伊军队里的“所有人的四肢都开始颤抖,每个人都环顾四周,想看看自己如何才能逃脱彻底的毁灭。”(So spake he, and thereat trembIing seized the limbs of them all, and each man gazed about to see how he might escape utter destruction.)- 显然,高高举起的“虞美人头”让士兵们联想到了戈尔贡被砍下的头颅,预见了死亡的来临。
我们再来分析《得墨忒耳赞歌》里的水仙花,它并没有从球茎中长出来;相反,它是在盖亚的影响下以非常规的方式产生的。该水仙反常地拥有一百个花头,十有八九会让古希腊听众联想到百头魔怪堤福俄斯(Typhoeus,也叫堤丰),两者都具有狂野、无序的生育力。古希腊的诸神,如克洛诺斯和瑞亚、宙斯和赫拉等 ,还是遵循人类的生育规律的。但戈尔贡即使被斩首,也能生下克律萨俄耳(Chrysaor)和飞马珀伽索斯( the horse Pegasus)。尽管堤福俄斯从下界出现后就立即与宙斯发生冲突,但仍有时间与他的怪物配偶厄喀德那(Echidna)生下怪物刻耳柏洛斯(Cerberus)、许德拉(Hydra)和俄耳托斯( Orthus )。此外,希腊神话里还有母子结合或孤雌生殖的暗示,这些不规则的生殖过程与奥林匹斯诸神所采用的繁殖方式形成对比。古希腊人惊异于希腊春天的野花大爆发,以为矮小的开花植物能够不需要种子而自发繁殖,因而赋予了这些植物一种绕过常规繁殖方式的生育能力,这与怪物们的生育力有异曲同工之妙。怪物不受控制的繁殖以及由此产生的无序身体威胁着宇宙的秩序,花朵的不规则生育能力也在挑战着宇宙秩序。
水仙花是最早绽开的春花之一,于料峭春寒中吐露芬芳,古希腊人认为水仙花本身很冷,容易让人联想到死亡,因为生命的消逝是以身体热量的流失为标志的。古希腊人很早就发现水仙花球茎具有麻醉作用,大量使用会致命,水仙花的这些自然特性让古希腊听众联想到死亡会使感官变得迟钝,将其视为死亡之花。