中国人从远古就有祭祖的风习,后来演变成国家特有的祭祀,规矩森严,而民间则成为基本习俗,即使今天现代了,祭祖的场面时时处处可见。
也许大家觉得这是封建迷信,老实说我也不祭,祖先过了几代是谁也记不清了,不过越是老,越能体会父辈先辈不容易,对某个人,某个亲属也许不觉得有什么特别,可家族的观念不容易遗忘。不忘祖,不是习惯,不是前人训责,而是选择。其实祭祖这事大有渊源,不仅仅是原始的风俗,不仅仅是上一辈辈传下来的,祭祖是中华民族的特征之一。
远古的时候,天地鬼神巫术,是全世界所有文化都经历过的,祖先崇拜也不是中国才能见到(社会达尔文首倡者斯宾塞(Herbert Spencer)还说祖先崇拜是所有宗教的起源),从各种文化的埋葬仪式即可见一斑。埃及法老炫耀自己的先祖,希腊酋长也赞颂自己的父辈,可是埃及人想的是来世,希腊人见的是大神。中国人把天地鬼神巫术转变成祖先崇拜几乎是独有的,祖先崇拜的基础是血缘关系,祖先取代了超自然的神,宗族是个见得到摸得着的实体环境,自己是祖先父母养大的,自己成人就是他们带来的结果,崇拜他们,求他们保佑,比求别的鬼神靠谱,聪明。祖先崇拜不仅仅是感激,它是把家庭、宗族和部落紧紧连在一起的一个共同信念。
据徐良高【6】估计,中国祖先崇拜并不是因为生产力发展,使得男性劳力占据主要地位而导致父权制所带来的,当时反而没有足够父权制强化的迹象,最大的可能是人口大幅增加,生存导致冲突,冲突中男性地位得以提高,而要组织、团结、强化本宗族部落的人力,祖宗成了大家共同的目的,祖先崇拜成了关键的凝聚力。这种能力不但在冲突时是关键,在生产合作过程中也很关键。祖先崇拜自然把权威放置到长辈的手里,这形成了其统治合法性的制度化,做决定也不再会依赖于变化无常的大神的眼色,给权力带来了稳定的基础。
选择家族血缘“祖宗”观念而非万能的大神,是中国人的一个根本的特性。(牟宗三言及这反映了当时中国农业的发达,物质的保障让人增加了控制自然的信心,降低了对迷信的依赖。)
“有虞氏禘黄帝而祖颛顼,郊尧而宗舜;夏后氏禘黄帝而祖颛顼,郊鲧而宗禹;商人禘舜而祖契,郊冥而宗汤;周人禘喾而郊稷,祖文王而宗武王”都是远古崇祖祭祖的典故,何炳棣【4,5】也认为祖先崇拜才是我国龙山时代至三代社会中的主要原始宗教信仰,并在当时社会中起着巨大的作用
黄土高原与毗邻平原的村落定居农业奠定了“华夏人本主义文化”的物质基础,孕育出“人类史上最高度发展的家(氏、宗)族制度和祖先崇拜”
何炳棣所说的,是中国文化和政治史上的一次跳跃性的发展,周公孔子 “礼”“仁”, “宗法基因”得以绵延两千年而不衰。
我要说的是,祭祖这么一条线索,把信仰、道德观和文化串在一起,给中国带来了一个全新的文化,在当时与古希腊媲美,足矣。在政治上,虽然希腊民主无法适应大国的统治【注1】,而在中国, 礼崩乐坏也是历史趋势,儒家按照三代宗旨推行的周礼王政也满足不了春秋之际的争霸需要。可是同时儒家把周礼发展成规则,成为礼教,把它当作人际间相互对待关系,把伦理关系形式化,成为体系,和以此为基础的价值观和道德观,成为一个大家可以遵守的规则。儒家的礼教不仅仅是人与人之间的关系,也是社会不同层次之间(有等级的)的关系,换言之是个政治关系。儒家体制的基础是家庭这一本身有内在凝聚力的单元,这也是政治和经济单元。这个基础成为之后中国文化的基础。
家庭是古时世界任何农业文化的单元,不同的是,儒家的孝把这血缘关系道德化,成为社会行为的规矩。孝不仅仅是权利和财产权,也是责任,是家庭间成员彼此的责任,子对父有责,父对子也有责(父子有亲,子孝父慈)。由此,礼教成了价值观和道德观,道德观产生了善恶感,不仅仅让整个社会有了一个基础,而且制造了社会在国家与百姓这一垂直的社会关系外的一个层次,一个社区环境(社群主义是过去三十年才兴起的政治哲学的新观念),一是有稳定性(稳定是保守意识的核心),二是同时产生了一个横向的结构,给社会带来丰富性【注2】,这个结构就是今天大家熟悉的关系,具体的,就是所谓的民间组织。
现在常有把关系看成一个负面因素,从现在的观念来看,确实有这个问题,都是潜规则,你没关系,啥也玩儿不通。不过不能简单地从字面看关系的反面作用。用现代的语言来说,你没关系,就是缺乏“置信度”(credibility),关系正是让你增加置信度的社会结构和途径。那在一个法制社会,这种潜规则是否就不合适了?第一没有一个十全十美的法制社会,法律都是统治集团、利益集团意志的反应(projection of power),第二,个人、家庭、团体、组织、社会都是不完美的单位,不仅不完美,而且充满矛盾(亚里士多德就深悉此中要害)。黑白制的法制理论上优越,但很多空白得需要潜规则来填补【注3】。关系对人类发展的重要性在英国作家英国作家弗格森【16】关于关系的近作有充分的描述。从古到今,很多组织都有建立这种关系的效能,如一神教和近代的党派,用的都是信念。
儒家(和百家的大部分)最大的谬误是轻商,以农为本,士农工商四民社会,四个等级。在我看来,社会是“国家-个人”权的一网,家庭宗族道德的一网,文化生活的一网,商业财富【注4】的一网形成的四维世界,价值观不是单一的,如只是财富,而是个综合的观念,是四个方面的合成,少了一方,形如残废。
按照儒家最核心的观念,家庭的利益和国家的利益是冲突的,一旦两者的利益发生冲突,家庭的利益高于国家利益,这才有“君权民授”的天命说法,如果政府不能替老百姓消灾去难,不能带来好的生活,就没有统治的权利,牟宗三【8】:
通过「敬德」、「明德」表示并且决定「天命」、「天道」的意义,那是一个道德秩序(Moral order) ,相当于希腊哲学中的公正(Justice) 。然而后者的含义远不及前者的丰富深远。孟子的民本思想,引尚书「天视自我民视,天听自我民听」为论据。的确,这两句的意义非常丰富,天没有眼耳等感官,天的视听言动是由人民体现的。换言之,统治者须要看人民,人民说你好,那么表示天亦认为你好,人民说你坏,那么自然天亦认为你坏。因此人民的革命表示统治者的腐败,在统治者的方面来说,是自革其天命。天命的层层下贯于人民,表示一个道德的秩序。人民在敬德和明德之中,得以正视和肯定天道和天命的意义
这观念具有现代的意识。中国之后两千年的权术之斗,就在于如何压制这一观念,即使到现在我们还在探讨。专制必然导致坑儒、独尊之类的纲领,这种思维一旦成为国家政策,不仅仅导致等级财富的极端化,更是禁止思想的多样性,思想被扼杀,社会只能往下走【注5】。
家庭宗族观念是中国人的第二个价值选择,这是集体利益高于个人利益,但集体利益是小集体利益,不是国家那么大的集体利益,民生社稷的要害在于两者间的和与统一,一旦大利益侵犯了小利益,伤了家庭伦理,小利益就有造反的权利(孝高于忠,这跟天命是一致的)。政治上,民本主义是中国社会的基础。民本主义实质上就是表达个人追求幸福权利。儒家观点潜在的要求是国家政府不能过强【注6】。
但是必须意识到,儒家礼制本质上是个等级、限制性极强的关系,家庭单位作为社会基本组成单位,其稳定性,就是说此单位的和谐是以一部分的牺牲而得到的。这一认识难说不合理,牟宗三【8】解释如下:
孔子的仁不能单说包含了普博 (Universal) 的意义。虽然在仁的步步向外感通的过程中,当然具有普遍的、宇宙的、泛博的涵义,然而它不单具普遍性(Universality) ,而且由于感通有远近亲疏之别,所以具有不容忽视的「差别性」(Differentiality) 、「特殊性」(Particularity) 、或者「个别性」(Individuality) 。孟子说:「亲亲而仁民,仁民而爱物」,即是说仁的差别性
这种“牺牲”不一定是父权彰扬的结果,中国没有个人(self)和自我(ego)的观念,也就是说强调家庭间的关系的是“责”,权力自然流向“父权”,但不是“父”这么一个个人。
祭祖和孝不是同一回事儿。孝的含义广泛的多,祭祖这一条线索是怎么把信仰、道德观和文化串在一起?
李宏利【2】所言祭祖涉及 “‘我是谁’、‘我从哪里来’、‘我到哪里去’”,这不是废话,而是大家说的所谓“根”,也就是哲学里关心的本体论和目的论(参见:【20】),动物由本能支配,人依目的生存。他有句大话:若识得中国传统祭礼,这三个问题自然引刃而解。
祭祖,是一种历史观,是对自己历史的认可,是对自己历史的自豪,是对自己历史的信心。对历史的信心,也就是对自己的信心。换种说法,中国人的信念是人。这才是中国人不信(现代意义上的)神原因,中国人对自我信心之足,完全不再需要一个外在的观念,不管虚的实的。人本主义是中国精神的根基。
从此处解释,你要是问儒家礼教的基础是什么?大家为什么接受?那是因为儒家是个人本的历史观,是对自己历史和文化的的自信,以此证明了自己的存在价值。祭祖是一种形式,一种观念,一个意识,一条心意。祭祖把家庭的现实和家庭的历史连在一起,给家庭这一单元带来一个根基。
赵汀阳【13】说:“以历史为本而建立精神世界是人的最大勇气。把自己的价值和意义交给上帝,心里的平衡是好多了”。这个“中国”理想,也就是中国文化,就是生活在这片土地上的人对自己的信念,自己的传统和自己创造出来的物质社会,对赵汀阳来说,这一信念代表了,或者说取代了其它地区的宗教。赵汀阳说得较抽象,我们来分析分析这个过程。
一般有认为超越升华这一心灵的状态必须依赖于一个超自然的观念,如上帝,那是古人对人类心理学缺乏认识,尤其是当被宗教思维局限的意识时产生的,其实从柏拉图到爱默生到(美国心理学家)詹姆士,自然的和形而上的观念都能成为超越升华的基础和目标,关键之处在于其价值性,广泛性和持久性。牟宗三说,超越的核心是感知从有限到无限的跳跃,所以超越既是个认识论的概念,也是个知识论的概念。从知识论来看,超越要有个目标,就是有个实体,可这是个矛盾,是个悖论,需要超越才能理解的实体,不可能是实体。从认识论来看,超越是如何完成的呢?人的认识,感觉(perception)-感知(conception)-抽象(abstraction)-概念(如柏拉图的形式,form)【这是我的语言】本身就是个糊涂的过程,无法在理性的框架内(形而上学)建立一个基础(固有英国分析哲学说的,此乃大家神志不清瞎说的结果),赵汀阳历史为本的超越是把历史这一由琐琐碎碎的事件实体转发成一个过程,而把这个过程的每一步加起来,得到历史的整体,而这整体就是个超越【注7】,从有限到无限的超越。
对中国人来说,历史的含义是人,历史是人的历史,历史的价值是人的价值。这样,历史能成为超越升华的目标,价值观也能成为超越升华的目标。
这种升华就成了中国文化。
这种历史观下的中国文化的道德基础什么是呢?简单的,就是“仁”。仁是普遍的“爱”,但不是同等的爱,这结果既产生“己所不欲勿施于人”的常识,也产生远近不一的区别,在政治上,产生了中国文化里独一无二的“和”的观念。和不是同,是和而不同,不同而能相处是认识上的一个跳跃,是政治态度上的一个跳跃,不同而能共谋,不同的团体能共同相处,形成一个多元的大团体,产生吸引力、凝聚力,以此产生物质、文化。赵汀阳把这解释为“漩涡效应”,也就是说,“中国”这个理想是中国附近远远近近的部落小国共同向往的理想,大家都以中国人自居,“逐鹿中原”的意思就是大家竞争,看谁最能代表“中国”(战国到秦,秦到汉,汉到唐)。
其实中华民族是个古怪的概念,汉族、汉人基本是强加的概念,历史上从来就没有一个纯粹的汉族,汉族不是一个种族。汉族,就是生活在中华大地的人,是几百个,甚至上千的部落种族溶合成的,中华民族大概是这个大杂烩的汉族的体面的名字。与种族之上、种族纯粹的观念相反,中国人相信杂而能成为一体正是中华民族的优越性,和不是大家一致,而是和而不同。中华民族的生命力,正是来自于此。【注8】
想起一件事。中国目前宣称的“和平崛起”一说,总是告知世人中国历史上从来就不是外侵的民族、国家。对此许多外国人,主要是西方的,不信,他们的口头禅是,如果你们不外侵,怎么国家变得这么大?确实,几千年前“中国”很小。不过我对中国历史至少懂得比外国人多,想了好些年,我想说的是中国只把外部“溶”进来了。这不好说清,后来发现赵汀阳这个比我高明的“天下体系”说法。赵汀阳看来中国从来没有“帝国”这么一观念,目前这也是中国政府的观点,很应时,不过西方却不这么看【注9】.
中华民族优越性导致的“漩涡效应”,局外人看来无疑是个邪说,因为西方的思维内这是不可能的,西方认为不可能的,就是不可能,他们不会去从你的角度想问题。还不仅仅于此,今天,几乎所有中国人的思维方式都是西方的,方法论是西方的,语言是西方的,政治学、道德观也是西方的,中国城市路标,用的不是甲乙丙丁,而是ABCD,习近平和中国一切官员穿的都是西装,西方文化在西方火红,在中国也一样火红。牟宗三也好,赵汀阳也好,他们都意识到大家对中国文化反思,用的也是西方方法、语言,我们整个现在西方的势力之内,无论怎么想,见到的是落后,不完善。
文化是会被遗忘的。现代化就是造成遗忘的最大的推力。牟宗三【8】“中国文化在开端处的着眼点是在生命,由于重视生命、关心自己的生命,所以重德”,【9】“仁的作用内在地讲是成圣,外在地讲的时候,必定要遥契超越方面的性与天道”。也许珍惜自己的文化遗产,是珍惜生命,这是中国人为什么祭祖。
【注】
【1】雅典艺术哲学灿烂辉煌,但军事不是强国(被斯巴达克击败),民主带来的却是专政(苏格拉底之死)、良知的结果是奴役(米洛斯对话)。
【2】一个简单的复杂系统难以维持其丰富性而同时达到一个真正的稳定。
【3】古时唯有商能代表民间财富,商同时是编织社会网络的唯一的有效机制。
【4】所谓民俗法,也是约定成俗,成法。
【5】中国传统专制思维发展和其对整个社会经济基础和上层建筑的控制最好的体现是对比(启蒙时期)法国狄德罗和达朗贝尔的法国百科全书(1750年代)和乾隆的四库全书(1770年代),一个是知识民众化,一个是思想专制化。这也难怪新文化运动把孔家店当作第一敌人,砸烂家庭关系是第一大目标。
【6】孔夫子之后的历史恰好与他所希望的相反,中央政府不仅越来越强,而且专制成了政府的主要动机,参与的层面还包括了强大的官僚集团,国家和民众之间的关系一直斗到民国,结果儒家精华被抑制,糟粕被弘扬,难免最后不少名人智士觉得儒家除了糟粕。中国花了两千年才被西方把这腐败暴露出来,其生命力的强大可见一斑。
【7】不论从逻辑,语法(linguistic),语义(semantic)或理性都无法论证部分之和等于全体,这个观念较复杂。
【8】中国最大的几个“少数民族”都已完全彻底接受了中华文化,例外的,是维吾尔族和藏族,两族约占1%人口。伊斯兰教和基督教的教义是一致的,是个排外的宗教,不仅仅排外,而且是个黑白分明的宗教,自己等同于好,他人等同于坏。藏族较复杂,佛教本身强调自身修养,并不妨碍在其它方面的,也许地理是个因素。
【9】我把最近达特茅斯一个清学者的看法附录在下,她的观点是清朝就是个帝国。西藏新疆的历史较复杂,中国与新疆的关系过千年不不尽相同。不过中国历代政府有删改历史的习惯,不是引以自豪的事,新疆教育营即使无可奈何之举,也属无能,实在令人失望。
【资料】
人道主义,人文主义和人本主义:概念和翻译小史
【16】(弗格森,Niall Ferguson)The Square and the Tower: Networks and Power, from the Freemasons to Facebook
【18】(Joshua Greene)Moral Tribes
【附录】
The Chinese Communist Party sees the past as a resource to be plundered by the present.
By Pamela Kyle Crossley(达特茅斯教授) | January 29, 2019
Chinese President Xi Jinping is directing a vast ideological war across multiple theaters—politics, culture, ethics, economy, strategy, and foreign relations. Among its most intense flashpoints is historiography, particularly of China’s last empire, the Qing, which ruled from 1636 to 1912. Historians, whether foreign or domestic, who resist Xi’s determination to design a past that serves his ideology have been targeted repeatedly by state propaganda organs. A new editorial suggests that this attack on Qing specialists is escalating.
Xi has a powerful weapon at his disposal. In 2003, 10 years before his assumption of power, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) initiated an ambitious project dedicated to Qing history. It was granted headquarters in the Zhongguancun district of Beijing, next to China’s leading technology companies. Its budget—never definitively quantified but clearly stratospheric as far as historiographical enterprises go—supported a threefold mission:
The first of these has been to complete the traditional arc in which each imperial dynasty declared its legitimacy by writing the history of its predecessor. At its demise in 1912, the Qing was not succeeded by a new dynasty, though Republican-era loyalists drafted a history that the new government refused to publish. In our century, the CCP has decided to seize the mantle of legitimacy by rewriting and publishing the Qing imperial history, which is now nearing completion.
The second is to digitize all the archival materials relating to Qing history. By 2014, the digitized image files of the documents were reported to total 1.5 million, searchable by metadata, and recent announcements show the number moving toward 2 million.
The third is to translate all foreign scholarship on the Qing period, which could run to tens of thousands of titles. But this task has become part of the intense struggle for control over the characterization of the Qing period—one in which Xi has co-opted the history project to defeat challenges to his historical confabulations from either conventional Marxist historians in China or from foreign scholars of the Qing.
Half a century ago, scholars from around the world agreed on the basics of Qing history. It began in 1644 when invading Manchus seized the former Ming capital, Beijing, and proceeded to establish their control over all of China. Their government followed the Ming model, and in the late 17th century the Qing began to spread Chinese control to Taiwan, Mongolia, Tibet, and what is now the province of Xinjiang. The 18th century went well for the Qing, which became the world’s largest economy. Its achievements in architecture, philosophy, and art were celebrated internationally by Jesuit residents of Beijing and their readers in Europe, including Voltaire. But in the 19th century, the empire was afflicted by the bloodiest civil war in history, the Taiping Rebellion; an onslaught of foreign gunboat diplomacy that deprived it of full control of its economy and urban spaces; and devastating military and economic incursions from rising, modernizing Japan.
But there were variations within this template. Historians who were part of China’s Nationalist movement condemned the Manchus as foreign vandals only too happy to abandon the Chinese to enslavement and massacre by other foreign aggressors. The idea of the “Century of Humiliation”—meaning, roughly, 1842 to 1949—that is now an all-purpose gripe in CCP justifications of its aggressive economic and military maneuvers is a synopsis of the Nationalist narrative of Qing failure, as is Xi’s claim that Confucianism was the core of Chinese tradition and must remain so. (In contrast, for Communist historians in China, the Qing, like other past rulers, oppressed the entire population of China by Confucianism, which blessed the predations of the land-owning elites while indoctrinating the masses in virtues of servility.)
In the late 20th century, historians in the United States, Europe, and Japan focused on the effects of early modern conquest and domination in the broadest comparative contexts—not only in Asia and the Middle East, but also in southern Africa and North America. They closely examined the effects of the great land empires of Russia, the Ottomans, and the Qing.
American historians, particularly, produced a narrative of the Qing as a conquest empire of global prominence, with not only power and wealth but also with the usual dynamics of violence (including genocide), hierarchy, and marginalized cultural identities. They noted that before its conquest of China the Qing was already an empire of considerable size, controlling Manchuria (including the former Ming province of Liaodong, roughly corresponding to the modern province of Liaoning) and dominating eastern Mongolia and Korea; they argued that that even after the conquest of China, Qing imperial government continued to show deep traces of its origins in Manchuria.
They used documents from all the empire’s languages, including Manchu, Mongolian, Tibetan, and Uighur—not just Chinese. They emphasized that the empire had grown to twice the size of its Ming predecessor by means of conquest—indirectly ruling Mongolia and Tibet, imposing an expensive military occupation regime on Xinjiang, and for the first time incorporating Taiwan into an empire based in China.
Xi’s strategy in remixing history is to draw selectively from the Nationalist and Communist historiographies, throw in some volatile nationalism, and resolutely suppress the implications of the new globalized and comparative historiography. The primary historical design shop is the Party History Research Office of the CCP Central Committee.
Through this mouthpiece, Chinese historians are instructed that a history of Qing conquest incites separatist movements in Xinjiang and Tibet, and in Taiwan it encourages those seeking formal independence for the island. Instead of an empire of conquest, Xi has rewritten Qing as a cultural and economic behemoth that awed and charmed the populations of Mongolia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Taiwan into happy submission.
Consequently, one of the first orders of business for Xi’s new administration in 2013 was to mount virulent attacks upon foreign historians of the Qing (including me) that continue today. Foreign historians are derided as imperialists in a new guise; these researchers devalue the uniqueness of the Qing as a Chinese dynasty by comparing it to other empires and imply that overland conquest as a historical phenomenon is more significant than Chinese rule. Articles describe them as “historical nihilists”; their imperialist and cosmopolitan perspectives override historical fact.
This idea that the full extent of Qing was reached naturally and peacefully is the source of China’s claims today to Taiwan, Tibet, and Xinjiang, and it is critical to its claims to the South China Sea. The underlying premise is that sovereign control of any territory is legitimated foremost by the historical geography of the nation that claims it.
Yet no modern state today adheres to such unreliable and patently illegal principles of territorial legitimacy. Before the 17th century, no states anywhere had considered national sovereignty an absolute. The concept later spread via the European empires to the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Today, territorial borders are ratified by treaty and international recognition, not by extravagant and unverifiable historical claims. Nevertheless, only contiguous countries (the Soviet Union, India, Vietnam, and North Korea) have disputed Chinese land borders, and never on a significant scale. Neither the United States nor any European power has questioned Chinese control over former Qing territories within current Chinese boundaries. Tellingly, the most intense applications of these principles have occurred in relation to various areas of the South China Sea—and the sea is the one place where claims of historical Chinese rule can never be proved or even reasonably inferred.
But it is not foreign historians or diplomats who need to be—or can be—convinced by Xi’s version of history. The intended audience is in China. Denunciations of “nihilism” have become louder as Xi pushes his programs for reification of Chinese “tradition.” The party history factory has identified historiography as a primary field of battle between the CCP and its enemies and exhorts Chinese historians to “strike” more frequently and more forcefully against foreign colleagues.
Among the most recent and ominous of these strikes is a recent editorial in the official journal Historical Research (Lishi yanjiu)—republished in both the print and online versions of the party organ People’s Daily—titled “Firmly grasp the right to speak of the history of the Qing dynasty.” The editorial states that too many Chinese historians have fallen under the sway of foreign nihilists, producing a gusher of new scholarship on the Qing that in ideological potency has nevertheless been “far from sufficient to meet the needs of the party and the people.” It prescribes a “Qing history research system with Chinese characteristics, Chinese tastes, and Chinese style”—the essentializing narrative that Xi uses to glamorize himself and his foreign ventures.
Many scholars of Chinese affairs decry Xi’s ruthless war on the cultures and communities of Tibet, Xinjiang, and Inner Mongolia. That has nothing to do with history but is a matter of humanity and conscience in the present. No pile of historical claims to control of territory can excuse such abuses, in China or elsewhere.
“Historical nihilism” is nothing more than a denial that the past is fundamentally a resource to be plundered by the present. Xi’s imagined history of the Qing as a huge empire of wealth and glory without conquest or tears may seem inane, but Western historians should note the seriousness of the CCP and the Qing History Project, because their Chinese colleagues surely do. China, after all, has a rich record, past and present, of imprisoning historians, many of whom do not emerge from custody. In the “firmly grasp” of the editorial’s title, the character used (lao, 牢) literally means “grip, fix, trap, imprison.” In that grasp can be held both the history prescribed by Xi and the historians who might resist it.
Pamela Kyle Crossley is Collis Professor of History at Dartmouth College and a specialist on the Qing empire and modern China. She also writes on Central and Inner Asian history, global history, and the history of horsemanship in Eurasia before the modern period. Her most recent book is The Wobbling Pivot, China Since 1800: An Interpretive History (2010).