西方人眼中的甲午战争
定远 镇远
左为德国萨克森号战列舰,右为英国英弗来息白号战列舰,定镇二舰正是以该两型舰为母型设计建造的
建造中的定远舰
航行中的定远舰
停泊于岸边的定远舰
从侧后方向拍摄的定远舰<网友张文提供>
左为被炮火击毁的定远舰,右为自爆后的定远舰的残破景象
现保存于日本长崎哥拉巴公园内的定远舰舵轮
完工时的镇远舰<网友李玉生提供>
黑色涂装的镇远舰,两艘舰载鱼雷艇清晰可辨
早期的镇远舰
左为黄海海战后在旅顺紧急抢修的镇远舰,右为海战后入坞抢修时拍摄的150毫米炮特写
镇远舰305mm主炮特写
被俘后的镇远驶入广岛
被俘后到达日本之后的镇远舰的左舷中央部特写,烟囱以及侧壁上的白框是镇远被击伤的部位
被日本改装的镇远舰两面图
改装完毕的镇远舰
停泊于日本某港口的镇远舰
1898年11月拍摄到的镇远舰
推测于1897-98年间在神户拍摄到的镇远
推测于1897-98年间在神户拍摄到的演习中的镇远舰,镇远左方为须磨舰,右方近处为高千穗,远处为桥立,最右方是秋津洲
日俄战争时期的镇远舰(左前方),此照是在扶桑号上所摄。
左为1947年5月1日由驻日海军少校参谋钟汉波收回镇远铁锚时在东京芝浦码头的留影,右为运回镇远铁锚的海关飞星号缉私船
现陈列于日本粟岛海员学校的镇远舰船钟
黄海大海战 英文版
The day after P’yongyang, the second major battle of the war took place. The Japanese fleet had been trying to engage a very reluctant Chinese fleet that had been ordered not to cross the Yalu-Weihaiwei line. So the Japanese crossed it for them, finding the Chinese fleet at anchor at the mouth of the Yalu River. Viceroy Li had decreed a defensive strategy. The Beiyang Squadron had been convoying troop transports to Korea and was on the return voyage to Port Arthur when the Japanese fleet caught up with them in the vicinity of Haiyang (海洋岛) and Zhangzi (獐子岛) Islands. The islands are located off the coast of Liaodong Peninsula, midway between the mouth of the Yalu River and Port Arthur. There on September 17, one of the two great naval battles of the war erupted. It has become known variously as the Battle of the Yellow Sea (黄海海战), of Haiyang Island (海洋岛海战), of Dadonggou (大东沟), of Taigozanoki (大孤山冲海战), or of the Yalu (鸭绿江), the term used in this work. The differing names have to do with the variety of geographic landmarks in the vicinity of the engagement.
Although there is no agreement even among contemporary sources about the exact number of ships engaged, there is agreement that two fleets seem to have been fairly evenly matched. The Chinese had an advantage in armor and heavy guns, whereas the Japanese and an advantage in speed and quick-firing guns. In addition, most of the Chinese fleet had been built before 1887, while most Japanese ships had been built since 1890. About ten significant ships from each side took part in the battle: The Chinese employed two armored turreted battleships (each with about one-third more displacement than the Largest Japanese vessel), three coastal defense ships, and five or six cruisers, while the Japanese deployed three coastal defense ships, five or six cruisers, and a gunboat. The Chinese fleet tried to form a line abreast with the weakest boats on the ends. Because of mixed signals and different speeds, the formation soon degenerated into an asymmetrical wedge shape. The Japanese fleet assumed a column formation with the flying squadron out front. The flying squadron had instructions of attack the right flank of the Chinese to annihilate the weak boats on the end of the formation. Upon seeing this, Admiral Ding Ruchang (丁汝昌) ordered his ships to change course in such a way what would have exposed his ship, the flagship, but put the rest of the squadron in a good position to fire on the Japanese fleet. Ding’s subordinate on the flagship ignored the order allegedly out of cowardice. In a nineteenth-century example of fragging, before the Japanese fleet was in range, the subordinate fired the main guns, thereby demolishing the temporary flying bridge on which Admiral Ding was standing. This was a well known consequence to be expected from firing straight ahead. Ding’s leg was crushed so that he could not stand, let alone walk during the hostilities. This made it impossible for him to repeat his order in time. The wounds would also make it difficult for him to follow the battle.
According to Vice-Admiral G.A. Ballard of the British navy, China’s battle formation was flawed from the beginning since a line abreast strategy required that the strongest, not the weakest, boats be on the wings in order to prevent the weakest boats from being picked off in detail. The Chinese then had failed to change course to prevent the Japanese from going around their wing with each vessel delivering a full broadside at close range on the wing ships. This destroyed China’s right wing while two boats on the left wing took the opportunity to flee from the battle altogether. The Japanese managed to obliterate the flagship’s foremast, which ended communications among the Chinese fleet – the vital signals could not be hung from the missing foremast. This gave the Japanese an enormous advantage since they maneuvered and fought by signal throughout the battle. The fighting was brutal, particularly since the wooden decks of the ships caught fire too easily. According to the Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute, “the severest damage to both fleets was done by fire.”
According to the Yantai correspondent of the Shanghai-based newspaper, The China Gazette, “There is no doubt the Chinese fought bravely, but they were no match for the Japanese whose tactics were admirable throughout the fight…The unfortunate Chinese gunners lost their heads and fired wildly, their officers left their ships at the mercy of the enemy by their clumsy seamanship while, on the other hand, almost every shot of the Japanese told.” According to a reporter for The Japan Weekly Mail, “The Japanese men-of-war preserved their battle array intact from first to last, but Chinese were soon compelled to fight without any tactical order.” The New York Time ran the headlines, “China’s Waterloo in Corea” and “Japan’s Great Naval Victory.”
In addition to defective tactics, the Chinese also had defective ordnance. The Japanese discovered, to their relief, that some of the Chinese shells were filled with cement instead of explosives. Other reports described some of the ammunition as being filled with porcelain and other as being of the wrong caliber, making it impossible to fire. These observations were made after the heat of battle. At the time, the Japanese grossly underestimated the degree of Chinese incompetence. Admiral Ito YuKo (伊东佑亨) did not pursue the fleeing Chinese because he knew that his fleet lacked weapons capable of sinking their two large armored battleships. Unbeknownst to him, the Chinese fleet was nearly out of ammunition and could not have fired many additional rounds from the big guns of the two large battles. According to Sir Robert Hart, inspector general of Chinese Maritime Customs, on the eve of the battle the Chinese had no shells for their Krupp artillery and no powder for their Armstrong guns – there were some of the main offensive weapons of their fleet. Although the Japanese were subsequently criticized for not pursuing the remnants of the Beiyang Squadron, their decision was based on the knowledge that they had nothing in their navy to match China’s two strongest battleships. A European diplomat observed that Japan’s naval “victories were due to the skill and daring of her sailors, and not to the ships which they manned.” The victory shattered the morale of the Chinese naval forces.
The Chinese defeat at P’yongyang followed a day later by its naval defeat at the Yalu dazzled the foreign press. Previously the continental European press had not provided much coverage of the war. With there Japanese victories, the war received front-page coverage in Le Temps. No one had suspected such a rapid turn of events. S.-Peterburgskie vedomsti credited Japan with “a brilliant victory.” The London Times wrote that the Japanese displayed “a rare aptitude for the assimilation of the best that has been thought and done by the civilized world, and, what is equally rare, the power of putting into practice the ideas thus assimilated.” Within the month, the Japanese would expel the Chinese from Korea (October 9, 1894) and start taking the strategic land and naval approaches to Peking. In early October, a reporter for the Moscow newspaper, Russkie vedomsti, observed: “The war which has flared up between China and Japan, indisputably is important not only for the Asiatic East, but also for Europe, and in particular for Russia, whose Asiatic possessions border on Korea and China and are located not far from the possessions of Japan.” After the Battle of the Yalu, it was recognized that Japan controlled the sea. Thereafter Moskovskie vedomosti treated an ultimate Japanese victory as a foregone conclusion; ”Our readers who were familiar with the condition of the Chinese and Japanese military forces before the war, undoubtedly are not surprised by the victories of the son of ‘the Empire of the Rising Sun,’ and should have expected them…there is no doubt that a new strong military power has appeared in the East.” China’s miserable performance had shattered the pre-war illusion of its military power.
Meanwhile, the official battle report received by the Chinese government claimed that the Chinese fleet had defeated “a numerically superior fleet of the Wojen [dwarfs]…sinking three of the enemy’s ships and severely injuring the rest, but losing four of our own in the battle.” Japanese findings corroborate the deliberate falsification of battle report to Peking. Later in the war, the Japanese seized various state paper found in Port Arthur. An undated dispatch to Viceroy Li concerning the Battle of the Yalu described a battle “more terrible than any to found in the Naval records even of Western countries. The ships of both sides were considerably damaged, especially those of the enemy. The enemy retired first, so that victory may more or less be said to have rested with us. Had not our rear become disordered, the entire victory would have been ours.” The dispatch went on to recommend rewards for those who fought bravely.
Viceroy Li wrote a report to the Zongli Yamen, the Chinese foreign office, based on Admiral Ding’s report to him, requesting promotions and honors for those who had participated in the battle. According to Ding’s account, after hours of fierce fighting and “vowing to die in opposing them we were enabled in our weakness to overcome their strength and to turn defeat into merit. We succeeded at this time in sinking the Admiral’s ship with one other war-vessel and one transport, thee in all; while the number afterwards sank through inquires [sic injuries?] received was still greater.” His ships, he claimed, had succeeded in preventing the Japanese from landing more troops in Korea. By all accounts, Admiral Ding, in stark contrast to so many of his contemporaries in the upper echelons of the Chinese military, was a man of great integrity and humility. Perhaps the errors in his report can be explained by the severe injuries he had received at the onset of the hostilities. It is unclear whether he over totally regained consciousness during the rest of the battle. Therefore, his report must have been based to large extent on the testimony of his associates.
The editors of The North-China Herald dismissed the Japanese reports as untrue because they did not admit to any sunk ships. As it turned out, none of their ships was sunk. The paper concluded that it was “evident” that the battle was a draw. It is unclear how many Chinese boats went down in the battle. Official Chinese reports admitted to a loss of three of four ships; others claimed that the Chinese had lost five ships and that three others had been severely damaged. Estimates of significantly damaged Japanese boats ranged from three to five to all of the Japanese ships involved.
According to the U.S. Secretary of the Navy, Hilary V. Herbert, the Battle of the Yalu “was nearly a drawn battle.” Although China lost four boats with an aggregate displacement of 7,580 tons while Japan lost none, “[m]ost of the Japanese fleet had suffered severely.” Had Chinese vessels been supplied with the proper ammunition – more common exploding shells instead of armor piercing shells – the Japanese might have lost. In other words, after the Battle of Yalu, the Chinese navy still could have taken on the Japanese navy to interfere with its on-going troop buildup on Asian mainland. As Vice-Admiral G.A. Ballard of the British navy later pointed out, China’s two main battleships, for which Japan had no counterparts, “should have been more than a match for the six best ships of the Japanese Navy.” But this presupposed that they were supplied with adequate ammunition, which they were not, even though China had had a month and a half after the onset of hostilities to rectify this problem.
Reference
S.C.M. Paine (2003) The sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Benjamin A. Elman
This article is about the contested nature of "science" in "modern" China. The struggle over the meaning and significance of the specific types of natural studies brought by Protestants (1842-1895) occurred in a historical context in which natural studies in late imperial China were until 1900 part of a nativist imperial and literati project to master and control Western views on what constituted legitimate natural knowledge. After the industrial revolution in Europe, a weakened Qing government and its increasingly concerned Han Chinese and Manchu elites turned to "Western" models of science, medicine, and technology, which were disguised under the traditional terminology for natural studies. In the aftermath of the 1894-95 Sino-Japanese War, Chinese reformers, radicals, and revolutionaries turned to Japanese and Western science as an intellectual weapon to destroy the perceived backwardness of China. Until 1900, the Chinese had interpreted the transition from "Chinese science" to modern, universal scientific knowledge - and its new modes of industrial power - on their own terms. After 1900, the teleology of a universal and progressive "science" first invented in Europe replaced the Chinese notion that Western natural studies had their origins in ancient China, but this development was also challenged in the aftermath of World War One during the 1923 debate over "Science and the Philosophy of Life."
外国人眼中的江南制造局造船厂与中日甲午战争
艾尔曼 Benjamin A. Elman
一、江南制造局的造船
? 根据孟悦的研究,从1868到1876年,江南制造局的造船生产效率非常高,8年之内建造了11艘船,其中10艘是战舰,这里边5艘是木壳船,其余5艘则是铁壳船。每一艘船的所有部件,包括引擎,都是在制造局生产的。制造局还尝试不同的设计,从单螺旋桨到多螺旋桨,从木壳船体到铁壳船体,以及从单纯的战舰到带有回转炮塔的船只。与1870年代日本横须贺造船厂的那些战舰相比,江南制造局的船舶制造技术水平确实要高于日本最先进的造船厂。
? 孟悦指出,直到1887和1888年,横须贺造船厂才生产出它最大的木壳战舰,这两艘战舰配有12门炮,并自夸有1622马力。而这无法和江南制造局1872年生产的最大战舰相比,这艘战舰有1800马力并装备有26门炮,更别说1875年之前,江南制造局就已经生产了5艘铁壳战舰,而直到1887年之后,日本的第一艘铁壳炮舰还没有完工。从军备角度来说,江南制造局的这些产品基本上都领先于日本的同类产品。
? 然而,全面地来说,中国由木壳和铁壳船只组成的舰队很快就落后于欧洲的新式装甲舰队。此外,由于缺乏资金,直到1877年中国都没有开始生产欧洲已经使用的复合式发动机,而是继续在中国船只上沿用老式的单或双螺旋发动机。因此,在1870年代,中国的船只仍然落后于欧洲。而且,中国的造船厂无法生产足够的船只,更多的战舰是在欧洲为中国海军建造。尽管国外技术已经应用来建造大型的先进战舰,但是,因为中国的训练无法跟上西方技术进步的步伐,所以,直到1890年代,中国的船只仍旧是过时的。与此形成对照的是,日本的官员和士兵到1894年时已经是训练有素,足以驾驶好他们的战舰。
? 在1876年之后,江南制造局的造船业引人注目地迟缓了下来。1885年,当制造局完成了它的第一艘钢制炮舰之后,它作为军用造船厂的使命也就结束了。像在欧洲那样把技术转换到钢制和装甲战船上来,中国存在的突出困难是怎样把铁和煤从内陆省份运输到沿海省份,而与此同时,用进口钢材制造船只,价格无比高昂。然而,直到1889年,江南制造局和福州船政局的造船技术可能比起日本兵工厂仍旧有着些微领先,1889年之后,横须贺船厂设计了新式的钢制战船。它的第一艘现代战船比江南制造局所造的同类型战船马力更为强劲,最高时速也更快一些。
? 造船一旦不再是主要任务,江南制造局就把它的机械改造成更适合制造最先进的国外枪炮和用于军事目的的小型武器。1874年,制造局总共生产了110门加农炮以及众多仿照不列颠的阿姆斯脱郎工厂产品的枪炮。由制造局生产的120mm、175mm、200mm这三款口径较大的前膛炮被放置在吴淞口以保卫扬子江的门户。1880年代后期,制造局生产了大型的后膛炮,起初使用的是黑色火药,后来改用褐色火药。到了1885年,李鸿章给予德国武器制造业的优惠要多于不列颠,于是,卖到中国的由克虏伯制造的武器比例增加了。
? 到中日甲午战争之前,江南制造局生产了大型的后膛阿姆斯脱郎炮,它的射程从7000到11000码。他们可以发射80到800磅的炮弹。1890年之后,制造局成功生产了快炮,制造局由此而知名,这种快炮对加强海防以及沿海防卫炮台都非常重要。到1892年,江南制造局生产了10门40磅的快炮。两年后,制造局生产的快炮可以发射40到100磅的炮弹。因为制造局的年产量不足以满足中国军队的需要,清政府仍然需要从海外购买武器。根据孟悦的研究,相比较而言,直到1905年日俄战争期间,日本都还没有开始实施它野心勃勃的炮兵计划。
二、中日甲午战争及其后果
? 对于1894年7月24日突然爆发的这场中日战争,外国报纸通常都预言中国会最后取得胜利,甚至在中国遇到了最初的失利之后还是这么认为。英国皇家海军副司令巴拉德(G.A.Ballard)认为1890年代的北洋舰队正处于可用的待命状态,并随时可以准备行动。后来,把中国和日本的海军舰队进行比较后,预示着中国可能取得这场海战的胜利。日本舰队总共有32艘战舰和23艘鱼雷艇,共载有13928人。其中,10艘建造于英国,2艘建造于法国。阿姆斯特朗船厂生产的Yoshino号被认为是当时行驶最快的船只,在1893年的测试中,它的速度达到23节。然而,中国的舰队仍旧分为北洋、南洋、福建和广东四支舰队。1894年,这四支舰队合起来大约有65艘战舰和43艘鱼雷艇。其中最强的北洋舰队差不多和整个日本舰队相当。
? 外国人普遍认为李鸿章的舰队比日本舰队有优势,与此同时,日本的报纸、杂志和小说在展望与清廷的战斗则洋溢着一种显著的乐观情绪,然而,许多日本人自己并没有对胜利有绝对的自信。例如,政论作家福泽谕吉(FukuzawaYukichi,1835-1901年)就警告这种过度自信,尽管他也赞赏日本刚刚给被中国所抑制的朝鲜带来的独立和启蒙。确实,日本议员对轻而易举的胜利感到吃惊,明治皇帝并不情愿和清廷开始处于敌对状态。直到日本取得最初胜利的消息已经传达到东京之后,他才没有拒绝给伊势的皇家神庙或他父亲的坟茔派去使者宣布胜利。
? 然而,另外一位英国观察家注意到,在中日战争中服役的中国船只上,中国船员显得士气低落,但是所有船员的薪水都已经支付了。然而,与此形成巨大反差的是,日本海军则整齐划一。本来中国的四支舰队之间是差不多同步的,但是,最后只有北洋舰队独自迎战日本舰队。因为李鸿章让他的舰队远离1884年的海战,南洋舰队的官员现在逮着报复北洋舰队的机会了,他们在大多数场合避免和日本舰队进行战斗。在中国不存在一支国家统一舰队,甚至连在报纸上也都不存在。
? 中日关系中主要争论的是朝鲜政治和经济的开放问题,李鸿章1894年7月派遣军队进入朝鲜,把朝鲜置于清廷附庸国的地位,而此后不久日本就擒获了朝鲜国王,中日之间的敌意由此开始出现。朝鲜摄政王对中国宣战,中国和日本船只之间的首次遭遇于7月末发生在丰岛,在那场海战之后,清朝北洋舰队试图保卫从威海卫到鸭绿江口的中国沿海,并在8月1日对日宣战。
后,日本海军在8月10日袭击了威海卫,震惊了满清朝廷,李鸿章以船只还不够用为借口而延迟行动。北洋舰队的主力聚集在鸭绿江口,为控制黄海与日本进行的大海战遂在9月17日开始了。双方在冲突中都投入了12艘战舰。中国船只在一次齐射中的装甲和吨位方面有优势,而日本在船只航速和齐射的持续转换中弹头抛扔速度上有绝对性的优势,日本有更多的快速发射的枪炮,可以发射3倍于中国从6毫米到12毫米炮的重量。
? 然而,并不是仅仅只有技术是结果的关键决定因素。事实证明,日本在海军指挥、舰船操作、以及弹壳的有效性等方面都有优势。一些观察家形容福州训练的官员是懦夫,尽管他们比起天津训练的官员来在经历和训练方面都更有优势,天津的官员几乎没有人当过船长。例如,在1892年,大多数驾驶室都仍会指定福州的毕业生。然而,怯懦不是决定性因素,因为在那场鸭绿江决定性战役中,中国发射了197颗12毫米口径的炮弹,半数属于实心弹,而不是炸弹,他们击中10次,其中6次臭弹,4次爆炸。
? 小口径炮方面,中国人开火482次,58次击中,22次击中吉野号。他们还发射了5枚鱼雷,但是没有击中。中国发射命中率大概是10%。另一方面,日本人快速发射的命中率大概是15%。另外,非常遗憾的是,中国军队因为缺乏军火而受到阻碍,特别是船只缺乏大型枪炮。举例来说,通过黑市来的一些炮弹填充的是水泥而不是炸药,其中一颗击中松岛号,另两颗穿过崎京号。这意味着在李鸿章的后勤供给方面存在着非常严重的腐败问题。以事后诸葛亮的想法来看,假设采取同样的战略决策,在鸭绿江的战争中,火力的速度和速率比船只及其装甲的重量要重要得多。
? 鸭绿江的战争结束之后,海滨的交战继续进行,因为日本人利用海上取得的戏剧性胜利发动陆地上的战争,这使得日本第一军占领平壤,并穿过鸭绿江进入中国东北边界。1894年9月组成的第二军在辽东半岛登陆,并占领了抚顺港。李鸿章寻求重建威海卫海港之外的海军,尽管很多人成为战争失利的替罪羊,但北洋舰队可怜的指挥系统和缺乏朝廷整体的军事体系,使得谴责官员和完全分派酬劳都成为不可能。此外,清廷海军的个人奖惩体系充满了不公平和不可预见性,许多中国舰长和官员简单地自杀效忠了事,没有人敢于质疑指挥组织或者要求成立一个部门来讨论海军独立问题。
? 1895年之后,中日甲午战争的胜利强烈地刺激了日本的自信心。此外,在清廷被迫给予明治政府大量赔偿之后,日本工业化也得以加速进行。朝鲜和台湾也都归于日本,成为事实上的殖民地。广大的西方注意到了小小岛国打败中华帝国的事情再次上演。然而,日本的胜利激怒了俄罗斯,俄罗斯担心日本会扩张到亚洲大陆上来。在与德国和法国达成一致以后,俄罗斯加入到干涉1895年4月签定的下关条约三方中来,使得日本被迫从具有战略意义的辽东半岛撤退,作为交换的是日本从清政府得到一笔额外的赔款。
? 对于日本公众来说,战争的胜利成为刺激明治新闻界的关键事件,社论上充斥着关于战争的争论。公众的狂热情绪也被站在中国一边进行干预的欧洲列强所引导。当后来俄罗斯逼迫清廷割让辽东半岛给他们时,日本人已经准备好在中国与莫斯科大战一场。1895年之后,当日本新闻界把播报国内新闻作为中心之后,公众关于军事冒险的热情也开始变成一种平常的事情了。在那时候,东京和大阪共有60万新闻报纸订户,日本对于中国的胜利在整个国家都引起反响,认为由此证明了明治时期的日本在东亚是杰出的,1904-1905年日本海军对俄罗斯的胜利更是加强了这样一种民族主义的勃发。
? 由于中日甲午战争的原因,新闻行业极大地被催发了起来,明治时期日本的这种向信息出版的转移,刺激了用一种新的、统一的日语来报道新闻和信息的需求。例如,博闻出版社利用战争爆发的机会,1894年迅速出版了题为“日本与清廷战争日志”的每月三期带插图的出版物,这极大地普及和帮助制造了一群日本战争英雄。其他出版商也快速追随,关于战争的小说、戏剧和版画成为抢手货。《读卖新闻》(Yomiurishimbun)还为发动征集“最好的”反对中国的战争歌曲,并颁发奖金。
? 从中国的立场来看,鸭绿江的海战灾难和中日战争中清廷决定性的失败加强了中国公众对朝廷政策失当的批评,以及对那些在朝廷和地方上反对西化的顽固保守派的批评。输在日本手上的那场没有预料到的海军大灾难震惊了许多文人和官员,现在他们开始在文人圈中引发一种对于西方学问的新的敬意。例如,1896年上海格致书院的成功重新开办就和这个事件有关。傅兰雅报告说:“整个中国,书籍生意大幅增长,连印刷机都跟不上这步伐,中国终于苏醒了。”
“肢解”李鸿章 -------评定居高位的政治人物,首先明确标准是什么?兼驳袁伟时。
蒋介石读了《李鸿章家书》之后,对秘书长陈布雷说:“李少荃,这个曾国藩的嫡传弟子,他创立了淮军,缔造了中国的海军,其人安邦治国的宏才大略已是少见,抓钱财、治家族,又细心又大气,文笔亦绝妙,在咸丰、同治和慈禧这几个手下也能办大事,其教子亦颇有一套,连家中的烧火工也教育得好好的!你看,这是什么样的人物呢?”(《李鸿章家书》前言,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
陈布雷怎么作答,《前言》没提,“陈独秀却对他有另一番有趣的评价,他说:‘李鸿章,幕僚出身嘛,阴谋诡计他是大师,而且深得做官从政的‘辣’字诀,这人天生有吏才。’”(《李鸿章家书》前言,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
所谓阶级地位决定个人意识,于上观之,嗯。
李鸿章到底什么样的人物呢?袁伟时在《从晚清四大公案看‘翻案’》中说:“要全面评价李鸿章。”这话很对,但袁伟时“限于篇幅,全面评述留待异日”,所以很片面地介绍了些晚清著名人物对李的评论。计有:
梁启超在《中国四十年来大事记(一名李鸿章)》说的一段耐人寻味的话:“若夫吾人积愤于国耻,痛恨于和议,而以怨毒集于李之一身,其事固非无因,然苟易地以思,当夫乙未(1895年)二三月、庚子(1900年)八九月之交,使以论者处李鸿章之地位,则其所措置果能有以优胜于李乎!以此为罪,毋亦旁观笑骂派之徒快其舌而已。”
谭嗣同在《谭嗣同全集》中引用张之洞对李鸿章的评语:当时朝廷内外对西方军事、内政和外交“稍知之者,惟一合肥(李鸿章)。国家不用之而谁用乎?”(《谭嗣同全集》第158页,中华书局1981年北京)
梁启超在《中国四十年来大事记(一名李鸿章)》说的:“今日举朝二品以上之大员,五十岁以上之达官,无一人能及彼者。”
为什么说袁伟时介绍晚清著名人物的“李论”很片面呢?
一、李鸿章是不是卖国贼?
有人说:晚清时代,整个中国积弱不堪,甲午一战败于日本,八国联军倾陷北京,换一个人签订条约,也跟李鸿章一个样(说不定反不如中堂干得漂亮呢?),岂能把“卖国贼”这只臭马桶牢牢扣在中堂头上,并一扣就是一百多年,应该多加俩字:李鸿章是卖国贼之一。
李鸿章身任北洋,整军经武二十年,何以不能一战?养你们这帮窝囊废作什么?对内争权夺利、勾心斗角,人人系出名门;对外抵御外侮、保家卫国,个个推不前,搡不后,是不是要叫我这个妇道人家率领你们这帮脓包去抗日?清国的一草一木都是我身上的肉,我愿意卖国呀?我愿意卖肉呀?说我是卖国贼,当心闪了舌头!
李敖说:“总而言之,统而言之,对国民党大员的一切,我们在国民党清一色的宣传下,最好保留一点,别忘了若入他们所说,一个个忠孝两全、两手清廉,大陆怎么会丢?”我们也要问问《走向共和》的主创人员:你们说,李鸿章忍辱负重、忧国忧民,是外交家,袁世凯这人不简单,是个大才……那,台湾怎么会丢?
二、李鸿章在太平天国起义、捻军起义中干了些什么?
李鸿章典型一个“安内”高手。他“壤外”无能,“安内”却劳苦功高。枪口对内,沙场驰骋,舍我其谁,堪称李老虎;倭寇压境,外患入侵,他却扭扭捏捏,止步不前,兵败如山倒,顿变李母鸡。
三、李鸿章在洋务运动中的成绩
李鸿章在洋务运动中的成绩不容人抹煞,这里有李的一封书信,它被蒋廷弼誉为“中国十九世纪最大的政治家最具有历史价值的一篇文章”。
“鸿章窃以为天下事穷则变,变则通。中国士大夫常浸于章句小楷之积习,武夫悍卒又多粗蠢而不加细心,以至所用非所学,所学非所用。无事则斥外国之利器为奇技淫巧,以为不必学;有事则惊外国之利器为变怪神奇,以为不能学。不知洋人视火器为身心性命之学者,已数百年,一旦豁然贯通,参阴阳而配造化,实有指挥如意,纵心所欲之快。……前者英法各国以日本为外府,肆意诛求。日本君臣发愤为雄,选宗室及大臣子弟之聪秀者,往西国制器厂师习各艺,又购制器之器,在本国制习,现在已能驾驶轮船,造放炸炮。去年英人虚声恫吓,以兵临之。然英人所恃为攻城之利者,彼已分擅其长,由是凝然不动,而英人固无如之何也。日本以海外区区小国,尚能及时改辙,知所取法,然则我中国深懂穷极而通之故,夫亦可以皇然变计矣。……杜挚有言曰:‘利不百,不变法,功不十,不易器。’苏子瞻曰:‘言之于无事之时,足以为名,而恒苦于不信;言之于有事之时,足以见信,而已苦于无及。’鸿章以为,中国欲自强,则莫如学习外国利器;欲学习外国利器,则莫如觅制器之器,师其法而不必尽用其人。欲觅制器之器与制器之人,则或专设一科取士,士终身悬以为富贵功名之鹄,则业可成,艺可精,而才亦可集。”(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P232,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
老李这篇文章值得现今某些转身回抱中华固有文明大腿的“国学家”仔细品位,从而明白由华变夷乃大势所趋,不以外力为转移,明白何为经国之大业,赶紧虚心学习,迎头赶上;何为雕虫小技、奇技淫巧,赶紧扔到臭茅厕。以免学非所用,用非所学,自误误人,荼毒生灵。
“李鸿章在同治四年八月奏上购买上海洋人铁厂机器,以之改建设为江南制造局一折。中间曾说:‘中国文物制度迥异外洋臻狂之俗,所以郅治保邦,固丕基于勿坏者,固自有在。’”(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P235,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
“与曾国藩李鸿章同时的郭嵩焘,在欧洲留心观察英法各国的政治、经济、社会等等制度,深知不但洋人的科技制造值得我们学习,他们的政治制度和教育文化等等更值得我们借鉴。所以他在写给李鸿章的信中,就主张李鸿章派往英法学习制造与驾驶的学生,不如让他们改学科学技术,以求实用。如果能够像日本人的留学方针一样,从政治经济社会法律等立国之本的制度学起,当然更好。但是李鸿章对于郭嵩焘的建议,却表示不能接受。他说:‘鄙人职在主兵,亦不得不考求兵法。’且‘兵乃立国之要端,欲舍此别图远者大者,亦断不得一行其志’,所以‘未便遂改别图’。” (《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P236,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
枪杆子里面出政权,此话不假,但不借鉴别人的军队组织原则,不借鉴别人的立国之本,将领选拔任人唯亲,社会制度“国情特殊”,苦心擦拭的枪杆子,也无非是银样镴枪头。
四、李鸿章对甲午战败应负之责
甲午一战,北洋军败得一塌糊涂,致使清政府特派李鸿章为“钦差头等全权大臣”去日本求和。1895年4月17日签订丧权辱国《马关条约》,割让台湾、澎湖列岛,赔款两亿两白银,分7年付清。举国闻之,群情激愤。当时北京参加会试的各省举人更是炸了锅,5月2日,康有为联络18省举人“公车上书”,揭开变法维新序幕。
“但话虽如此,甲午战争中北洋海军之败,却不能完全归咎于船炮不如日本,与弹药准备不足这两项原因。除此之外的致败原因尚可举出两大点,第一是北洋海军的事纪废驰,高级军官缺乏斗志;第二是统帅非人,指挥失当。”(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P249,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
关于军纪废驰,包遵彭著中国海军史,引日人伊藤正德所撰国防史说:“在明治二十四年,吴镇守府参谋长东乡平八郎,曾见停泊宫岛之清国军舰镇远、定远舰炮上,张晒衣裤,曾云:‘以此类巨舰,纪律尚如此,其海军实不足畏,无怪欧美喻为睡狮。因此益增吾人之战胜信念。’”(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P250,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)这军纪废驰,乃是人的问题,李鸿章无可卸责。
关于统帅非人,指挥失当,更是人的问题,李鸿章更难以卸责,因为北洋军所有将领的安插任命,都是老李亲自任人唯亲。
退一步讲,“海军之败,犹可以诿为舰只老旧与弹药不足,北洋陆军则具有新式大炮和配备,平素的操练演习又向来号称精良,如何也一败再败,甚至弃甲曳兵而走,连堆积在平壤城中的数十具新式大炮及上千的枪支都一概不要,惟以逃避奔走为能事呢?这一点,李鸿章就实在无辞可解了。”(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P253,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
五、李鸿章对于《中俄密约》应负之责
甲午败绩,宣告所谓洋务自强运动彻底破产。靠自己无以自保,清政府便琢磨抱大腿,以夷制夷。当时老毛子腿粗,靠得又近,所以清政府便想“联俄拒日”。方法就是《中俄密约》。
所谓中俄密约,乃是俄国人以订立军事同盟为饵,为迫满清政府同意割让东三省境内的迤长土地,以供其建造中东铁路,由俄境西伯利亚之伯力,贯穿吉黑两省而至海参威,从此可使俄国的实力渗透我国的东三省。(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P276,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
本意狐假虎威,吓唬倭寇,不料反被老毛子摆了一道,自此俄国势力侵入东三省。更要命的事,“到了二十三年,德国人就因为满清政府厚俄薄德之故,籍口曹州发生仇杀教士事件,而出兵强占山东胶州湾,俄国见德战胶州,即籍口英国舰队在旅顺口巡逻,系对俄国之不利,竟完全不顾中俄密约订立后两国有攻守相助之义务,反向清廷强迫要求租借旅顺大连及关东区域。到了此时,不但外国列强纷纷择肥而噬,就是三年之前俄国伪装其仗义执言的亲善面孔,迫使日本退还辽东半岛,又使中国偿付三千万赎金,然后刚从日本人手中收回的旅大及关东要地,也被俄国人强迫占去了。……李鸿章所一手签订的中俄密约,也变成无数人的攻击目标,许多不利于李鸿章的谣言和传说,也在此时纷纷传布开来了。”(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P277,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
“俄国占据旅顺大连之后,英国籍口保持均势,向清政府要求租借威海卫为海军根据的。……继此之后,法占广州湾,英国再援均势之说要求租借九龙以为抵制,满清政府对此纷至沓来的无穷要索,毫无抗拒的办法。此时光绪方亲裁大政,深恨李鸿章以联俄误国而招此瓜分之祸,大为愤怒,降旨命李鸿章毋庸在总理各国事务衙门行走。”(《李鸿章家书》收录庄练著《李鸿章传》P280,中国华侨出版社1994年11月第1版)
庄练在《李鸿章传》中说:“就事论事,中俄密约的签订,应归因俄国人谋我过深,而李鸿章及同时的一班士大夫未能及早洞察俄人之奸险,反为其外表的诚信所欺以至堕其术中,亦并非李鸿章一定厚爱于俄人。处身在当时的政治环境及民族感情中,如果把李鸿章换上了刘坤一或者张之洞,一样也会与俄国人签订此约。所以,中俄密约之签订,既不能视为李鸿章的卖国行为,也不能认为李鸿章的外交知识不如他人。他只是很不幸地适逢其会,成为亲手订下此约的代表人而已。”
这明显是替李鸿章开脱,因为误国外交就是误国外交,不能说俄人奸险,你就可以理直气壮无能,更不能说集体无能,便推卸了个人无能,误国外交那帮货色人人有份,一个都不能少,李鸿章自然荣等榜首。
北洋水师军舰上所携带的炮弹不多,而且水兵的战术素养不高。据查曾有一艘北洋水师的鱼雷艇冲到了离日舰吉野号仅40尺的距离,连放三条鱼雷却无一命中,士兵的素质可见一般。再者,当时北洋有两艘军舰上的管带居然不在舰上,而是在远离战场的妓院中寻欢作乐。客观上来看,北洋舰队是被日本突然袭击,编队发生混乱,形成了日舰有机可乘,北洋只得各自为战的局面,但是从另一方面来看,这同样是水师的素质低下的表现。
就西方来看,19世纪末的北洋水师不仅仅是号称“东亚第一舰队”,而是名副其实的“东亚第一舰队”,除去兵员素质的问题,这支舰队的实力甚至是超过了俄国的太平洋舰队的,不但是有能力保卫海疆,而且完全有实力去进攻日本本土(如镇远号战列舰的装甲之厚,没有一门日本大炮能够击穿它,这也是为什么在威海之战后该舰也未被击沉的原因,屈辱的是,它后来被编入了日本舰队。)。但是,真正了解这支舰队的恐怕也只有它的创始人李鸿章,这也是他为什么要采取保守的政策,并在黄海失利后严令舰队困守威海的原因。
“定远纪念舰”要纪念什么?
历时3年多、耗资5000万元的“定远纪念舰”舰体复制工程日前宣告结束。据说,这是世界上第一艘复制成功的19世纪铁甲舰。舰艇内部将按历史原貌进行还原。
作为北洋舰队的旗舰,“定远舰”因甲午海战而闻名,该舰由德国伏尔铿造船厂制造,有“亚洲第一舰”之称,1895年2月在中日海战中沉没于威海卫港。我们在回望鸦片战争时,往往有一个约定俗成的说法:“帝国主义用坚船利炮打开了中国的大门”。事实上,在甲午海战时,恰恰是中国拥有了“亚洲第一舰”的“坚船利炮”却输掉了战争。此后签订的《马关条约》更使中国陷入了万劫不复的境地。在这个意义上说,定远舰是甲午海战惨败的耻辱标志,是中国人民心中永久的痛。
可就是这个惨痛的耻辱标志,为什么还要耗费巨资复原呢?是不是唯有将纪念寓于旅游之中才能更加清晰地唤醒民众对曾经的耻辱的记忆?可是,这种将痛苦和耻辱娱乐化、商业化了的“纪念”究竟会加深人们的记忆还是会淡化人们的记忆?我们需要纪念甲午海战,而且,在纪念的同时要更深刻地反思:为什么拥有了亚洲最强的海军力量还让人打得全军覆没?如果仅仅将“大手笔”的复制耻辱向世人展示作为纪念,那么这种纪念只能是对纪念内涵的误读和亵渎。