美国雷管国务卿杜勒斯报复和边缘政策战略

约翰·福斯特·杜勒斯（1888-1959）

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles

出生于华盛顿特区，美国政治家、律师、外交官。 1953年至1959年担任德怀特·D·艾森豪威尔总统领导下的美国国务卿。他是冷战初期的重要人物，主张在全世界范围内采取激进的反共产主义立场。
1953 年 1 月，德怀特·艾森豪威尔接替杜鲁门出任总统，杜勒斯被任命并确认为其国务卿。他担任国务卿期间与世界各地的共产主义政府，特别是苏联发生了冲突。杜勒斯强烈反对共产主义，称其为“无神的恐怖主义”。[28]杜勒斯的首选战略是通过军事建设和结成联盟来遏制（被称为“太平洋狂热”）。

杜勒斯是大规模报复和边缘政策战略的先驱。在为《生活》杂志撰写的一篇文章中，杜勒斯定义了他的边缘政策：“在不卷入战争的情况下到达边缘的能力是必要的艺术。”[29]

杜勒斯的强硬路线疏远了许多不结盟国家的领导人，他在 1955 年 6 月 9 日的一次演讲中指出，“中立已经变得越来越过时，除非在非常特殊的情况下，否则它是一种不道德和短视的观念。”[30] 1956年6月在爱荷华州的一次演讲中，杜勒斯宣称不结盟是“不道德的”，进一步严厉批评了不结盟运动。 [31]整个 20 世纪 50 年代，杜勒斯经常与不结盟政治家发生冲突，他认为这些人过于同情共产主义，其中包括印度的 V.K. Krishna Menon。

伊朗
1953 年 3 月，他的第一个重大政策转向对共产主义采取更加激进的立场，当时杜勒斯支持艾森豪威尔的决定，指示当时由他的兄弟艾伦·杜勒斯领导的中央情报局 (CIA) 起草推翻总理穆罕默德的计划伊朗摩萨台。[32]这直接导致了支持穆罕默德·礼萨·巴列维的阿贾克斯行动政变，后者重新获得了伊朗国王的地位。

越南

在第一次印度支那战争期间，杜勒斯表示，他预计法国会战胜共产主义越盟军队，并表示，“我不认为共产主义会在印度支那取得胜利”。 [33]杜勒斯致力于减少法国在越南的影响力，并要求美国尝试与法国合作，帮助加强吴廷琰的军队。随着时间的推移，杜勒斯得出结论，他必须“让法国摆脱越南。”[34]

1954 年，在奠边府战役最激烈的时候，杜勒斯帮助策划和推动了“秃鹰行动”，即提议使用 B-29 轰炸机对越共围困阵地进行空中攻击，以解救陷入困境的法国军队。艾森豪威尔总统让美国的参与依赖于英国的支持，但外交大臣安东尼·伊登爵士反对，因此秃鹰计划在杜勒斯的反对下被取消。[35][36]随着奠边府落入共产党手中，杜勒斯与艾登闹翻了。

在1954年涉及法属印度支那分裂的日内瓦会议上，他禁止与中国代表团进行任何接触，并拒绝与中国首席谈判代表周恩来握手。杜勒斯还反对会议分割越南国家并举行统一政府选举的计划，坚持认为反共的越南国家仍应是越南的合法政府。他随后离开，以避免直接参与谈判；杜勒斯的退出导致日内瓦会议未能解决越南冲突。[37][38]

亚洲及太平洋地区

作为国务卿，杜勒斯在朝鲜战争期间推行了中立台海的“遏制”政策。 [39]后来，杜勒斯在日内瓦反对中国和苏联关于朝鲜半岛外交统一的任何建议，从而使朝鲜冲突得不到解决。 [40]

1954年，杜勒斯设计了东南亚条约组织（SEATO），规定采取集体行动反对侵略。该条约由澳大利亚、英国、法国、新西兰、巴基斯坦、菲律宾、泰国和美国代表签署。

1958年，杜勒斯授权空军部长公开表示，美国准备在金门和马祖群岛与中国的冲突中使用核武器。 [41]

在多年抵制修订后，从 1957 年到 1959 年，杜勒斯监督了《美日安保条约》修订版的重新谈判，该条约最终在他去世后的 1960 年获得批准。 [42]

危地马拉

1956 年杜勒斯与美国总统艾森豪威尔
同年，杜勒斯参与煽动

1953 年和 1954 年政变策划期间的美国事务。[44]

埃及
1956年11月，杜勒斯强烈反对英法入侵苏伊士运河地区，以回应埃及对运河的国有化。最关键的日子里，杜勒斯手术后住院，没有参与美国政府的决策。到1958年，他已成为埃及总统贾迈勒·阿卜杜勒·纳赛尔的直言不讳的反对者，并阻止纳赛尔政府接受美国的武器。这项政策使苏联在埃及获得了影响力。[45]

John Foster Dulles （1888–1959) 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Foster_Dulles

Born in Washington, D.C., an American politician, lawyer, and diplomat.  Served as United States Secretary of State under President Dwight D. Eisenhower from 1953 to 1959. He was a significant figure in the early Cold War era, who advocated an aggressive stance against communism throughout the world.

When Dwight Eisenhower succeeded Truman as president in January 1953, Dulles was appointed and confirmed as his Secretary of State. His tenure as Secretary was marked by conflict with communist governments worldwide, especially the Soviet Union; Dulles strongly opposed communism, calling it "Godless terrorism."[28] Dulles's preferred strategy was containment through military build-up and the formation of alliances (dubbed "pactomania").

Dulles was a pioneer of the strategies of massive retaliation and brinkmanship. In an article written for Life magazine, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art."[29]

Dulles's hard line alienated many leaders of non-aligned countries when on June 9, 1955, he argued in a speech that "neutrality has increasingly become obsolete and, except under very exceptional circumstances, it is an immoral and shortsighted conception."[30] In a June 1956 speech in Iowa, Dulles declared non-alignment to be "immoral", further castigating the Non-Aligned Movement.[31] Throughout the 1950s, Dulles was in frequent conflict with non-aligned statesmen who he deemed were too sympathetic to communism, including India's V. K. Krishna Menon.

Iran
One of his first major policy shifts towards a more aggressive position against communism occurred in March 1953, when Dulles supported Eisenhower's decision to direct the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), then headed by his brother Allen Dulles, to draft plans to overthrow Prime Minister Mohammed Mossadegh of Iran.[32] That led directly to the coup d'état via Operation Ajax in support of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, who regained his position as the Shah of Iran.

Vietnam
During the First Indochina War, Dulles stated that he expected a French victory against the communist Viet Minh forces, stating, "I do not expect that there is going to be a communist victory in Indochina".[33] Dulles worked to reduce French influence in Vietnam and asked the United States to attempt to co-operate with the French in the aid of strengthening Diem's army. Over time, Dulles concluded that he had to "ease France out of Vietnam."[34]

In 1954, at the height of the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, Dulles helped plan and promote Operation Vulture, a proposed B-29 aerial assault on the communist Viet Minh siege positions to relieve the beleaguered French Army. President Eisenhower made American participation reliant on British support, but Foreign Secretary Sir Anthony Eden was opposed to it and so Vulture was canceled over Dulles's objections.[35][36] With Dien Bien Phu's fall to the communists, Dulles fell out with Eden.

At the 1954 Geneva Conference, which concerned the breakup of French Indochina, he forbade any contact with the Chinese delegation and refused to shake hands with Zhou Enlai, the lead Chinese negotiator. Dulles also opposed the conference's plan to partition the country of Vietnam and hold elections for a unified government, insisting that the anti-communist State of Vietnam should remain the legitimate Vietnamese government. He subsequently left to avoid direct association with the negotiations; Dulles's exit contributed to the Geneva Conference's failure to resolve the conflict in Vietnam.[37][38]

Asia and the Pacific
As Secretary of State, Dulles carried out the "containment" policy of neutralizing the Taiwan Strait during the Korean War.[39] Later, at Geneva, Dulles objected to any proposals by China and the Soviet Union for a diplomatic reunification of Korea, thus leaving the Korean conflict unresolved.[40]

In 1954, Dulles designed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO), providing for collective action against aggression. The treaty was signed by representatives of Australia, Britain, France, New Zealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and the United States.

In 1958, Dulles authorized the Secretary of the Air Force to state publicly that the United States was prepared to use nuclear weapons in a conflict with China over the islands of Quemoy and Matsu.[41]

After having resisted revision for many years, from 1957 to 1959, Dulles oversaw the renegotiation of a revised version of the U.S.–Japan Security Treaty, which was eventually ratified in 1960, after his death.[42]

Guatemala

Dulles with U.S. President Eisenhower in 1956
The same year, Dulles participated in the instigation of a

Egypt
In November 1956, Dulles strongly opposed the Anglo-French invasion of the Suez Canal zone in response to Egypt's nationalization of the canal. During the most crucial days, Dulles was hospitalized after surgery and did not participate in the U.S. administration's decision making. By 1958, he had become an outspoken opponent of Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser and prevented Nasser's government from receiving arms from the United States. That policy allowed the Soviet Union to gain influence in Egypt.[45]