2006年初在阿利托(Samuel Alito)大法官被参议院确认之后,奥康纳黯然隐退,温和保守派的奥康纳被铁杆保守派的阿利托取代的最大后果就是:肯尼迪作为仅存的温和保守派和摇摆票,拥有了比当初奥康纳还要大的影响力。
2008 年奥巴马携民主党卷土重来,苏特和斯蒂文斯也先后辞职,好让一个民主党总统任命自己的继任者,奥巴马提名了索托马约尔(Sonia Sotomayor)和卡根(Elena Kagan)取代他们,就这样,最高法院完成了新的一轮换血,罗伯茨率领斯卡里亚,汤姆斯和阿利托组成了铁杆保守派,金斯伯格率领布雷耶,索托马约尔和卡 根组成了自由派,肯尼迪作为温和保守派在大多数时候站在保守派一边,但是也常在一些问题上支持自由派。
在 2003年的格鲁特尔一案的判决之后,各种势力的博弈就立刻开始,有的州如密西根州,干脆就直接通过州居民投票通过法律禁止在公立学校录取学生的时候考虑 种族因素,也有的州修改了本州公立学校的录取程序以保证和奥康纳的格鲁特尔一案的判决一致,如得克萨斯州。在这里我们花开两朵,各表一枝,先来谈谈得克萨 斯州的诉讼。
在 2003年之后,得克萨斯大学想出来一个非常符合奥康纳法官判决精神的录取方案:得克萨斯大学把录取名额的四分之三保留给所有高中的前10%的学生,也就 是说,任何高中,无论优劣,只要你能是这个高中成绩的前10%,你就被得克萨斯大学提前录取了。刚才我们提到了:“怎么不考虑种族因素就能保证种族均衡 呢?”,你还别说,得克萨斯州还真想出来这么个办法。得克萨斯州基本是各种族各自群居,非洲裔和非洲裔的住在一起,西班牙裔和西班牙裔住在一起,白人和白 人住在一起,也就是说,得克萨斯州今天基本还是实质上种族隔离,这样的群居也就导致了各个高中也是泾渭分明,白人区高中几乎全是白人,非洲裔社区的高中全 是非洲裔。因为每个高中不论其好坏或者族裔组成,其班级的前10%都能进入得克萨斯大学,这样进入的得克萨斯大学的新生的种族构成就基本和人口的种族构成 差不多了。那剩下的四分之一的名额呢,如果你的成绩不够高中成绩的前10%,那你就要通过一个很复杂的评估程序,在这个程序里,种族将是一个考虑因素。
得 克萨斯大学得意洋洋地审视自己的录取政策,真的是再满意不过了,得克萨斯大学没有考虑种族因素就落实了四分之三学生的录取工作,非常符合奥康纳的期望,剩 下的四分之一学生录取程序的确考虑的种族因素,但那毕竟是因素之一,没有人说得克萨斯大学把四分之一名额中的多少要交给非洲裔和西班牙裔,也没有具体地说 如果你是非洲裔或者西班牙裔,你的入学机会就一定能增加多少,这也符合巴基和格鲁特尔判决。
但是得克萨斯大学被挑战了,挑战并非因为得克萨斯大学工作的疏忽,而来自于巴基和格鲁特尔两案判决之间无法解决的矛盾。
奥康纳大法官在格鲁特尔的多数意见书说“考虑种族因素”必须要有一个逻辑终点,但是鲍威尔大法官在巴基的意见书里说,不可量化。如果不可量化,那你怎么知道是否到达了这个逻辑终点呢?你怎么才能知道这个社会已经不再需要在入学政策上考虑种族因素了呢?
罗伯茨敏锐地感觉到了对方的弱点,但是只有等到一个合适的案子,他才能借机向自己希望的方向推动习惯法。
他没有等很久,仅仅七年之后,阿比盖尔·费舍尔(Abigail Fisher)这个十八岁的得克萨斯白人小女孩,就把这样一个案子送上美国最高法院。费舍尔在高中成绩是前12%,没有达到得克萨斯大学10%自动录取的线,她只有申请剩下来的25%名额,但是她被得克萨斯大学据了。她认为同班非洲裔和西班牙裔的同学论成绩论课外活动都不如她,却被录取。她认为唯一合理的解释就是她作为白人被歧视了。
在费舍尔一案的庭审中,保守派大法官们的立场一览无余,一开场斯卡里亚就充当了急先锋,他直接出手挡住了金斯伯格和索托马约尔对费舍尔诉讼资格的挑战。而相对沉默的罗伯茨一出手就是压迫式的提问,让得克萨斯州大学的律师几乎没有喘息的时间。
CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS:
I understand my job, under our precedents, to determine if your use of race is narrowly tailored to a compelling interest. The compelling interest you identify is attaining a critical mass of minority students at the University of Texas, but you won't tell me what the critical mass is. How am I supposed to do the job that our precedents say I should do?
Grutter said there has to be a logical end point to your use of race. What is the logical end point? When will I know that you've reached a critical mass?首席大法官罗伯茨:
格鲁特尔说使用种族的录取政策必须有一个逻辑上的终结点。这个逻辑上的终点是什么?我什么时候才知道你已经保证少数族裔在大学里能有足够代表呢?
这是一个巨大的逻辑陷阱,如果得克萨斯大学的律师列举数字的话,罗伯茨就会立刻指责得克萨斯大学违反了巴基,因为巴基不允许大学使用量化的指标。得克萨斯大学的律师只好不断地腾挪躲闪。
但是罗伯茨紧追不舍:
At what level will it satisfy the critical mass?
到了什么程度才能让你觉得少数族裔在大学里能有足够代表呢?
这当然是得克萨斯大学的律师不可能,也不敢于回答的,因为这正是巴基和格鲁特尔最深层的矛盾。罗伯茨抓住对方这一弱点不断攻击,让得克萨斯大学的律师狼狈不堪。他甚至连对方喘气的机会都不给,就继续指出现行制度的荒谬之处:
CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: Counsel, before -- I need to figure out exactly what these numbers mean. Should someone who is one-quarter Hispanic check the Hispanic box or some different box?
首席大法官罗伯茨:如果一个人是1/4西班牙裔血统,他应该在申请表上选择“西班牙裔”么?
这是罗伯茨常用的“逻辑斜坡”陷阱,他先诱使你给出一个回答,然后他把你放上一个你刹不住车的逻辑斜坡上,让你滑入荒谬绝伦的逻辑深渊,有很多老律师都在这上面被罗伯茨修理得很惨。得克萨斯大学的律师看着危险迎面而来,但是罗伯茨不给他考虑的机会:
CHIEF JUSTICE ROBERTS: They would check that box. What about one-eighth?
首席大法官罗伯茨:那1/8西班牙裔血统怎么办?
显然1/4西班牙裔和1/8西班牙裔血统在法律角度下没有什么区别,得克萨斯大学的律师当然不可能主张把两者区别对待,但是这样的逻辑延伸是没有止境的,1/8西班牙裔和1/16西班牙裔之间又有何区别?在罗伯茨犀利的攻击下,现行制度的荒唐性被淋漓尽致地展现在眼前。
这整个庭审期间罗伯茨首席大法官担任了主攻手的角色,得克萨斯大学的律师左支右绌,忙于防御。庭审结束之后几乎所有的人都觉得强制优待政策的前途堪虞,大法官们在那个星期的星期五进入秘密会议表决,大家只好等着他们宣布结果。
结果一等就是八个多月,2012年10月10日的庭审,直到2013年的6月24日才宣判。一般而言最高法院的案子简单的一个月判决书就出来了,越复杂的案子花的时间就越多,花了八个月才宣判一般是案子在大法官之间有很多反复。
但是最奇怪的事情发生了:费舍尔诉得克萨斯大学的判决书简单地出奇,以肯尼迪大法官主笔的判决书只是把案子发回下级法院,他得到了其他六位法官的支持,只有金斯伯格异议(卡根可能因为担任奥巴马政府首席律师的时候参与帮助得克萨斯大学的工作,在此案回避了)。
No. I was hoping that the necessity of this policy becomes more conspicuous, once a cross-comparison is made. However, by now, I don’t think you understood the gist of this conversation.
I explained the need for affirmative action in the education system for the country (USA) as a whole. I have also compared the need for this policy in different countries – countries that have utilized more or less of the same policy for similar reasons. I was hoping you’d understand the purpose -- that the country as a whole should grow together. The opportunities for entry to the best colleges should be afforded to all -- not just you and I.
The emphasis here is not about one person, or one race. It is about the benefit and advancement of the entire country. On that, there are similarities between US and mainland China -- currently, or historically.
So you are using China Mainland's education system to justify US's AA?
Everything has a reason to exist but that does not justify it. Slavery existed for a long time, so did women's foot-binding in China mainland.
Your logic does not work.
I thought I already answered. Firstly – to say that particular students are accepted only because of their skin color and not the content of their character is, quite frankly, wrong. A student without sufficient substance will never be accepted by the ivy league schools, whatever the race.
And to respond to your other question – I would say, no. Providing more educational opportunities to minorities does not hurt the country’s global competitiveness as a whole. How could it? The policy’s purpose is to elevate the entire country, not just particular races that are over-represented in the ivy league schools. I thought the answer is rather obvious.
And yes – the country has an interest to enhance the educational opportunities to all races. Look at the US. Look at mainland China. This policy has existed for hundreds of years in different forms. For example, the traditional Chinese imperial examination system:
在明仁宗時確定,會試按地域分配名額。在會試的試卷中加上「南」、「北」等字,按「南六十」、「北四十」的規定錄取進士。之後比例偶有調整,但按地域分配名額的制度一直沿用至清朝科舉被廢。名額保障制度保障了文化相對落後的邊遠省份(如甘肅、貴州、雲南等),使每屆科舉會試各地都有一定數量的舉人成為進士,進入政界的中高層,有利於保持國家的統一與政治安定。
(see https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%A7%91%E4%B8%BE%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6#cite_note-acpsh-32 )
Again – I am sure you can see the similarity with the system today. This policy (or different versions of it) existed for so long for a reason.
The reality is particular races are favored (with other races being suffering) just because of their skin color which has nothing to do with the content of their character. Isn't this hurting the country's global competitiveness as whole? Is this of the interest of the country from a larger perspective, in your view?
They are other ways to provide opportunities to certain races.
I am all for having more Asian players in the NBA. If you start a petition to the NBA commissioner on this, let me know and I’ll sign it.
On the other hand, I would not urge adding more Asians to jail, if that is what you mean.
>> -- 這裏你把因果關係弄反了。 我也希望自己的孩子能輕輕鬆鬆玩著玩著就上好大學
>> -- How the country as whole will continue to suffer if particular races choose not to make substantial efforts to increase their own market competitiveness….
I can argue with you on this all day from the perspectives of an individual, but it won’t be of much use. I am asking you to understand this from a public policy perspective.
To make it easier to understand: here is a Chinese equivalent for you to consider. Take below, for example – 少数民族高考加分政策 (see http://edu.sina.com.cn/gaokao/2015-01-01/1053452450.shtml )
See also:
我国是一个多民族国家,由于各地区各民族之间发展的差异,导致基础教育水平参差不齐,为了保证教育水平相对落后的民族地区的少数民族考生也能享受到接受高等教育的权利,国家制定了许多民族照顾政策,其中惠及范围比较广的有民族预科班、民族加分或降分等等,就全国为数众多的少数民族考生而言,高考填报志愿时如果能够对这些民族照顾政策加以充分利用,往往可以起到锦上添花甚至改变最终录取结果的作用。
http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_4a615c6701007ydk.html
I am sure you see the similarities between U.S. and mainland China on this issue.
Is this fair to the Hans? No. Does the country need this for the benefit of the minority races? Yes. I don’t expect you to find fairness from a personal view. I ask you to understand the reason for this policy, however, from a national perspective.
I would dare to say that considering race in college admission is quite different from presuming guilt based on the color of someone’s skin. Nonetheless – the policy here is about providing more opportunities to certain races. Asians have benefitted from diversity, too. The discussion here is – should we keep the door open to other races, or do we narrow that door to benefit Asians at the cost of the entire country (particularly when Asians are already overrepresented, at 370%?
And, to be clear – I don’t think this is a “good thing.” I just think, from a policy perspective, this is a necessary thing, for the time being.
-- NBA里面的华人是不是 under-represented? 是不是应该纠正? 监狱里面,黑人已经 over-represented,那么司法机构是不是应该对黑人特别宽松一些,以增加监狱里的diversity?
"I don't see a crusade for justice here. What I see is the same battle that was fought for by countless Asian tiger moms and dads -- name brand education, whatever the price. "
-- 这里你把因果关系弄反了。 我也希望自己的孩子能轻轻松松玩着玩着就上好大学,现实是,在这些案子里,为了获取同一所学校的录取,华人孩子必须要比其他族裔的孩子优秀-- 即便更加优秀,甚至还得不到录取 -- 仅仅是因为族裔。在这样的现状下,为了为自己的孩子争取受教育的权利,我们还能怎么办?谁愿意自己的孩子小小年纪就戴着眼镜成天苦读?谁不希望自己的孩子有一个轻松愉快的童年? What's the price we are paying for it, and why?
"But, if they do not do so, this country as a whole will continue to suffer. Particular races will fall further and further behind in the academic arena and face even further deprivations in educational opportunities."
-- How the country as whole will continue to suffer if particular races choose not to make substantial efforts to increase their own market competitiveness? On the contrary, the reality is particular races are favored (with other races being suffering) just because of their skin color which has nothing to do with the content of their character. Isn't this hurting the country's global competitiveness as whole? Is this of the interest of the country from a larger perspective, in your view?
"And, yes, the colleges and universities favor certain races over the Asians" if this is a good thing, then why police do racial profiling is a bad thing?
Who would that be?
There are plenty of Asian men who made it to the HYSP as well. Jeremy Lin is one such example. (It is dangerous to use over-generalization in one's analysis and allow emotion overshadow reason, you know.)
And, yes, the colleges and universities favor certain races over the Asians. We know that. But, if they do not do so, this country as a whole will continue to suffer. Particular races will fall further and further behind in the academic arena and face even further deprivations in educational opportunities. On this issue, I believe we must look at the interest of the country from a larger perspective.
And, it is hard to make a case of Asian discrimination here. Asians make up about 5.6% in population, but 21.1% in the Harvard student body. If anything, Asians are already over-represented.
I don't see a crusade for justice here. What I see is the same battle that was fought for by countless Asian tiger moms and dads -- name brand education, whatever the price.