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丹尼尔·贝尔 中国模式好 民主政治坏

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Daniel A. Bell 丹尼尔·A·贝尔
https://danielabell.com/contact/?

Daniel A. Bell是香港大学法学院政治理论讲座教授。2017年至2022年担任山东大学(青岛)政治学与公共管理学院院长。他来自蒙特利尔,曾就读于麦吉尔大学和牛津大学。 他曾在新加坡、香港、上海和北京担任教职,并在普林斯顿大学、斯坦福大学和希伯来大学获得研究奖学金。

Daniel A. Bell  is Chair Professor of Political Theory with the Faculty of Law at the University of Hong Kong. He was Dean of the School of Political Science and Public Administration at Shandong University (Qingdao) from 2017 to 2022. He is from Montreal and was educated at McGill University and Oxford University. He has held teaching posts in Singapore, Hong Kong, Shanghai and Beijing, and research fellowships at Princeton, Stanford, and Hebrew University. 

YouTube 中美政治最大的不同之處,香港大學美籍教授精彩分析,網友:真正懂中國的美國人!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UMuDfUXH1yA&ab_channel=%E6%B4%9E%E8%A6%8B%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B

Introduction to The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy

https://www.lhp.sdu.edu.cn/__local/8/A3/41/19FC270FED665F76E15B982A2E0_2113C3A6_144AFB.pdf

中国模式:政治精英与民主的局限性

The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy 
https://www.amazon.ca/China-Model-Political-Meritocracy-Democracy/dp/0691173044

2016 年 9 月 6 日 作者:Daniel A. Bell 丹尼尔·A·贝尔

中国的政治模式如何成为西方民主的可行替代方案

西方人倾向于将政治世界分为“好的”民主国家和“坏的”独裁政权。 但中国的政治模式并不完全适合这两类。 在过去的三十年里,中国已经形成了一种可以用“贤能政治”来形容的政治制度。 中国模式旨在了解这一独特政治体系的理想和现实。 贤能政治理想如何为评价中国政治进步(和倒退)设定标准? 中国如何避免贤能政治的弊端? 政治贤能政治如何与民主最好地结合起来? 丹尼尔·贝尔回答了这些问题以及更多问题。

贝尔首先批评了“一人一票”作为选择最高领导人的方式,他认为中国式的贤能政治有助于弥补选举民主的关键缺陷。 他讨论了贤能政治的优点和缺陷,区分了贤能政治和民主相结合的不同方式,并认为中国已经形成了一种道德上可取且政治稳定的民主贤能政治模式。 贝尔总结并评估了“中国模式”——上层是精英统治,中层是实验性,下层是民主——及其对世界其他国家的影响。

《中国模式》是一本适时而原创的书,将引起人们的兴趣和争论,它着眼于一种不仅在中国有着悠久历史的政治体系,而且可能被证明是二十一世纪最重要的政治发展。

书评:中国模式:政治精英与民主的局限性

https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-china-model-political-meritocracy-and-the-limits-of-democracy/

丹尼尔·贝尔,《中国模式:政治贤能政治与民主的局限性》,普林斯顿大学出版社,2015 年,318 页,29.95 美元(hbk),ISBN 9780691166452。

复旦大学白同东审稿

2016.01.07

在丹尼尔·A·贝尔的著作中,似乎有两个贝尔:政治理论家贝尔和政治观察家贝尔。 这种二元性可能与他的社群主义有关,社群主义虽然是一种哲学观点,但强调社群、历史和文化的特殊性。 我认为自己是一个传统意义上的政治哲学家,关注普遍性或可普遍性。 因此,我对政治哲学家贝尔的欣赏要多一些,尽管贝尔作为政治观察家,对西亚和东亚(无论是理论还是实践)都有深入的了解,有时还带有逆向倾向,经常能提供新的视角。 有趣且发人深省的政治和文化。

贝尔著作的一个共同主题是挑战自由民主是历史终结的信念并提出替代方案。 本书的新颖之处在于,他在“特殊主义”道路上走得更远。 我评论的他的最后一本书是《超越自由民主:东亚背景下的政治思维》。 主标题听起来是普遍主义的,而副标题则暗示了特殊主义的倾向。 他的新书的书名颠倒了这个顺序。 原因如下:

我早期关于政治贤能政治的著作更多地受到儒家哲学的启发,而不是实际的政治。 在过去的几年里,我逐渐认识到中国的政治制度具有精英政治的特征,哪怕只是因为我自己在清华大学的优秀学生越来越多地被中共吸收。 (12)[1]

因此,在本书中,他没有提出一种基于儒家思想的治理替代方案,而是提出了一种基于当代中国政权的治理方案。 对他来说,后者既有中国传统政权的特征,也有儒家经典的特征。 他使用所有这些来源的材料,但主要重点是当代中国政府的做法。

尽管主流信念仍然是自由民主是最好的治理模式,但西方的失败和中国的成功都引发了对这一信念的质疑,贝尔在引言中承认了这一点。 然后他开始捍卫他所谓的政治贤能政治。 他将此与自由民主国家现有的精英政治区分开来,在自由民主国家中,专家被选拔在狭隘的领域内以中立的方式工作,也与经济精英政治区分开来,后者遵循“各尽所能,各尽所能”的原则。 他的贡献”(5)。 在经济问题上,贝尔与约翰·罗尔斯等政治理论家乃至遵循“各尽所能、按需分配”原则的“高级共产主义”坚定地站在左翼(5)。

为了给政治贤能政治腾出空间,贝尔必须挑战“民主是最不坏的政权”这一信条。 塞缪尔·亨廷顿等政治现实主义者,甚至中国的党派保守派,“警告我们,在贫穷的发展中国家不可能轻易建立民主”(15),但问题实际上是时间问题,而不是民主化的可取性问题。 相比之下,贝尔在第一章中指出了“选举民主的四个关键问题:多数人的暴政、少数人的暴政、投票群体的暴政以及竞争性个人主义者的暴政”(20)。 他所说的第一种暴政,是指在政治决策中起决定性作用的大多数公民对政治一无所知,而且在理性上也是如此。 有人可能会说,尽管存在这种无知,但选民的集体智慧应该值得信任,但贝尔认为,只有当参与者已经了解情况时,集体智慧才是智慧。 不幸的是,政治的现实是,议政者不参与,参与政治的人不议事。 你可以通过辩称这是一个公平的程序来捍卫一人一票,但贝尔的反驳是:我们为什么不扔一枚硬币呢? 我们拒绝这一程序表明我们确实关心理想的后果,而大多数无知的选民并没有实现这一点。 第二个问题是经济不平等加剧导致超级富豪占据主导地位。 尽管缺乏经济和政治流动性,美国人却设法相信相反的情况,对贝尔来说,这只是一种幻觉。

第三个问题是,一个国家的选民可以决定影响超出国家及其公民范围的事务,例如气候变化以及对敌方战斗人员和涉嫌恐怖分子的酷刑。 最后一个问题源于贝尔认为,民主政治中激烈的个人主义竞争是抹黑运动和党派政治的根源,以致儒家和儒家国家所重视的和谐价值被忽视。

贝尔认为,当代中国政权,尤其是精英政治,可能会解决选举民主的一些问题。 但一个问题是,即使中国政权确实能更好地解决这些问题,它是否会比选举民主更好。 但贝尔认为讨论中国政权(也许以稍微理想化的形式)值得,原因如下。 首先,从第二章中,我们至少可以看到,选举民主并不明显优于其他替代方案。 其次,中国政权提供了现实世界的精英统治模式,而不是一些可能很容易被认为不切实际的想象政权。 第三,中国的一党专政不会很快崩溃,讨论其优缺点至少有助于理解和改进中国政治,其好处是显而易见的。

在第二章中,贝尔讨论了精英管理的一个关键问题:如何根据他们的优点来选择领导者。 关于商业领导力的讨论有很多,但它们并不完全适用于政治案例,因为商业领导者往往比政治领导者有更简单的目标(盈利是最重要的)。 贝尔提出的一种选拔方法是中国传统科举的一种更新形式,即“公共服务考试(误导性地翻译为‘公务员考试’)”(78),它往往侧重于候选人的智力能力。 政治领导人的社交技能也很重要,但很难衡量。 贝尔建议我们应该认真对待揭示一个人社交技能的特征,例如年龄和性别。 另一个政治功绩是美德。 对充满美德颂扬的经典作品进行测试会有所帮助,因为这些经典作品可以默默地塑造一个人的性格。 战争英雄或那些致力于非营利组织的人也往往是有道德的。 最重要的是,同行的评价可能是衡量一个人美德的好方法。

在第三章中,贝尔讨论了政治贤能政治的一些问题并提出了解决方案。 第一个问题是腐败,他的解决方案包括法治、言论自由、执法、市场化的薪酬制度和道德修养。 最后一条也被一些中国共产党人所强调,但在贝尔看来,这来自儒家传统,而不是马克思主义传统,马克思主义传统不太注重道德修养。 令贝尔遗憾的是,“党尚未采取正式步骤,正式用儒家思想取代共产主义”(124)。

第二个问题是僵化,他举例提到新加坡和法国的政治精英缺乏同情心,对群众充满傲慢的问题。 他提出的解决方案是加强同情心和谦逊,包括在来自不同背景的政治精英中加强同情心和谦逊,或者将最优秀和最聪明的人送到贫困地区作为培训的一部分,最重要的是,促进经济平等,从而关闭 精英与大众之间的差距。 在选择过程中应针对不同情况,寻求不同的优点。 为此,还需要有足够的言论自由,允许公开讨论和实验,通过不同渠道吸引具有不同优点的人。 同样重要的是,中央政府需要能够将一个地区的成功实验付诸全国实践。

第三个问题是合法性。 贝尔认为,一人一票并不是合法性的唯一来源。 在非民主国家,可能还有其他合法性来源。 一是民族主义。 中共所使用的民族主义是基于怨恨的,告诉人们中国是如何被西方羞辱并被中共拯救的。 这种民族主义可能是有毒的,它最近已经转变为一种植根于重新拥抱传统的基于自豪感的民族主义,尽管还不是完全。 第二个来源是性能。 但这是有风险的,并不能保证稳定,因为如果中国经济恶化,中共的合法性就会受到威胁,而且经济发展总是带来民主化的压力。 第三个来源是对政治贤能政治内在价值的认识。 一个问题是那些在精英选拔过程中失败的人的不满。

在传统中国,那些未能跻身精英政治阶梯顶端的人仍然可以在当地社区中享有社会和政治角色,从而被吸收到体制中,贝尔对此表示欢迎。 对于那些不在精英体制内的人的价值也应该有更强烈的认识。 人们更多的参与也有帮助。 “最终,唯一的方法是毫无疑问地表明人民支持政治贤能政治。换句话说,民主可能是使贤能政治合法化所必需的”(150)。

因此,为了捍卫现实世界的贤能政治,贝尔被引导讨论民主与贤能政治的调和,进而引发对三种理想模式的讨论。 第一种模式是在选民层面将民主和精英结合起来,即多元化投票,这是密尔提出的,李光耀建议的。 但得票较少的选民会感到受到侮辱,而多数投票可能会延续得票较多的选民的统治地位,从而导致腐败,因为政客会给自己的同胞更多的选票,并对拥有额外选票的人给予特殊的照顾。 确定谁应该获得多少票的客观可靠的程序也难以实现。

第二种模式是民主和精英政治的混合体,可以通过带有“精英”众议院的两院制结构来实施,这是贝尔本人以前倡导的模式。 他讨论了孙中山、弗里德里希·哈耶克、江青以及英国上议院的建议,并认为,当人们通过一个人获得一种赋权感时,精英议院将被民选议院所掩盖。 -一人一票。 东亚社会不能把赌注押在精英统治的传统上,因为日本、韩国和台湾都接受了选举民主,而不是儒家混合政权。

第三种模式是底层民主,顶层精英管理(通过第二章讨论的选择)。 在结束语中,贝尔还增加了一个中间层次,允许进行精英政治和民主结合的实验。 他将这种三层结构称为中国模式。 但为了让高层的精英管理发挥作用,潜在的候选人在经历长期的培训时,需要保证他们的培训能够得到回报。 这意味着一党执政是一个前提。 那么,这种精英政治的合法性问题最终只能通过全民公决来解决,公投可以使这个政权在很长一段时间内(比如50年)保持合法性,直到下一次全民公投。

在结束语中,贝尔首先讨论了中国模式在现实中的缺陷,并提出了纠正的方法。 然后他猜测这个模型是否可以出口。 作为一个优秀的社群主义者,他认为这种模式植根于历史、文化,而且中国政府非常强大,所以也许只能部分输出。 他还认为,为了让中国成为世界其他国家的榜样,中国政府需要少一些压迫,多一些宽容。 除了以儒家思想取代共产主义之外,他还建议中共言出必行,即改名为“中华贤能联盟”。 网上还有两个附录。 其中之一是和谐指数,根据社会和谐的因素对国家进行排名,这是极具创新性和挑战性的。

如前所述,贝尔的中国模式是基于对中国传统政权、当代中国政权和儒家思想的观察。 这些观察的范围令人印象深刻,并且常常提供有趣的观点,但其中许多观点存在争议也是很自然的。 此外,贝尔为了呈现中国模式而采用的资源的多样性也导致了这些资源是否可以用来呈现一致的画面的问题。 最重要的是,存在将规范性建议与当代中国政权表面上的成功过于紧密地结合起来的危险。 他有理由这样做。 正如他承认的那样,他“受到批评者的无情攻击,被指控为从中共的辩护者到高盛(我妻子的雇主)的代理人”(12),这也是他写一本书的动机,提供详细的内容 以及细致入微的论证。

但这本书也遭到了(一些)批评家的类似指控的无情猛烈攻击。 这些批评家中有许多听起来像是空想家。 他们对所谓的自由民主开放社会的信仰不允许公开讨论。 对他们来说,任何敢于挑战自由民主的人,要么是愚蠢的,要么是邪恶的。 他们欠我们一个解释,为什么西方在很多方面都失败了,而中国却做得相对较好。 此外,贝尔并没有描绘出一幅纯粹的中国美好图景,他还对中国政权提出了批评。 尽管如此,我觉得贝尔对中国现政权的赞扬太多,而对批评的批评却不够。 在批评自由民主的历史终结观点的同时,他本人似乎认为,中国将在目前的中国政权及其目前的政治方式下继续取得成功。 我没那么乐观。

我与贝尔分享了他对当代自由民主的许多批评以及他的许多规范性建议。 但他的一些想法似乎有些片面。 例如,他认为一党专政对于选贤任能至关重要,但我认为关键实际上在于,当一个政党不执政时,培养中的贤能人士能够找到有意义的工作,而这需要不同的渠道。 政治才华和他们在社会中的流动性——这是美国社会确实提供的,也是中国当局最近一直在呼吁的。 此外,他声称美国联邦制不会像他的中国模式中的中层实验那样有效,这对我来说听起来很武断。 至于一般的方法论,我认为更安全的做法是回到一两位儒家思想家或儒家文本,梳理出他们所主张的政治模式,将其更新到当代环境,然后捍卫其可取性。 传统中国的其他儒家文本和实践只有在可能说明这一模式时才应使用。

在此基础上,我捍卫了一种混合模式,其中有法治和基本自由,底层有纯粹的选举民主,中间有准自治(这在中国传统的中央集权政府中被儒家所表述) 支持“封建主义”),并将民主与精英政治结合起来。 该模型基于一套连贯的儒家思想(主要来自孟子),并且由于其规范性而不受现实世界政权的兴衰影响。 贝尔批评了这样一个政权的生存能力,认为顶层的民主因素最终将侵蚀精英政治。 但他自己的中国模式也必须从每50年左右进行一次的公投中获得合法性。 这种安排可能会受到挑战,尤其是当这种模式不断失败时。 贝尔的回答是,绩效并不是合法性的稳定基础,而教育会有所帮助。 但为什么我们不能教育人们看到混合政权的美妙之处呢? 是的,即使是东亚国家也走上了纯粹的选举民主之路,但这也许是因为选举民主似乎是唯一的赢家。 但风向有所转变,人们有望以开放的态度寻找更好的模型。 中国模式是一种可能的候选者,但我指的并不是一种基于现实世界的当代中国政权的模式,而是基于孟子和其他儒家哲学家所设想的模式。

[1] 北京大学的校友,包括我自己,很快就会带着轻蔑和自以为是的态度指出,这正是清华大学的典型特征,因为这是一所培养技术官僚和野心家的工科学校。

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The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy 

https://www.amazon.ca/China-Model-Political-Meritocracy-Democracy/dp/0691173044

By Daniel A. Bell  Sept. 6 2016

How China's political model could prove to be a viable alternative to Western democracy

Westerners tend to divide the political world into "good" democracies and “bad” authoritarian regimes. But the Chinese political model does not fit neatly in either category. Over the past three decades, China has evolved a political system that can best be described as “political meritocracy.” The China Model seeks to understand the ideals and the reality of this unique political system. How do the ideals of political meritocracy set the standard for evaluating political progress (and regress) in China? How can China avoid the disadvantages of political meritocracy? And how can political meritocracy best be combined with democracy? Daniel Bell answers these questions and more.

Opening with a critique of “one person, one vote” as a way of choosing top leaders, Bell argues that Chinese-style political meritocracy can help to remedy the key flaws of electoral democracy. He discusses the advantages and pitfalls of political meritocracy, distinguishes between different ways of combining meritocracy and democracy, and argues that China has evolved a model of democratic meritocracy that is morally desirable and politically stable. Bell summarizes and evaluates the “China model”―meritocracy at the top, experimentation in the middle, and democracy at the bottom―and its implications for the rest of the world.

A timely and original book that will stir up interest and debate, The China Model looks at a political system that not only has had a long history in China, but could prove to be the most important political development of the twenty-first century.

Review The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy

https://ndpr.nd.edu/reviews/the-china-model-political-meritocracy-and-the-limits-of-democracy/

Daniel A. Bell, The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy, Princeton University Press, 2015, 318pp., $29.95 (hbk), ISBN 9780691166452.

Reviewed by Tongdong Bai, Fudan University

2016.01.07

In Daniel A. Bell's writings, there seem to be two Bells, Bell the political theorist and Bell the political observer. This duality may have had something to do with his communitarianism, which, although a philosophical view, emphasizes the particularities of community, history, and culture. I take myself to be a political philosopher in a traditional sense, focused on the universal or the universalizable. Thus, I can appreciate much more of Bell the political philosopher, although Bell the political observer, with in-depth exposure to both the West and East Asia (both theories and practices) and sometimes with a contrarian bent, can often offer new perspectives on politics and culture that are interesting and thought-provoking.

A common theme of Bell's writings is to challenge the belief that liberal democracy is the end of history and to propose alternatives. What is new in this book is that he goes further down the "particularist" road. The last book of his I reviewed was Beyond Liberal Democracy: Political Thinking for an East Asian Context. The main title sounds universalist, while it is only the subtitle that suggests a particularist leaning. The title of his new book reverses this order. Here is why:

my earlier writings on political meritocracy tended to be inspired more by Confucian philosophy than by actual politics. Over the past few years, I came to realize that China's political system has meritocratic characteristics, if only because my own high-achieving students at Tsinghua University were being increasingly recruited in the CCP. (12)[1]

Thus, in this book, instead of offering a Confucianism-based alternative of governance, he proposes one based on the contemporary Chinese regime. For him, the latter has features from both traditional Chinese regimes and Confucian classics. He uses materials from all these sources, but the main emphasis is on contemporary Chinese governmental practices.

Although the mainstream belief is still that liberal democracy is the best possible model of governance, both the failures in the West and the successes of China have given momentum to questioning this belief, which Bell acknowledges in the Introduction. He then sets out to defend what he calls political meritocracy. He distinguishes this from the existing meritocracy in liberal democracies, in which experts are selected to work in narrowly defined domains and in a neutral manner, and also from economic meritocracy, which follows the principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his contribution" (5). On the economic issues, Bell is firmly on the left with political theorists such as John Rawls and even the "higher communism" that follows the principle "from each according to his ability, to each according to his needs" (5).

In order to make space for political meritocracy, Bell has to challenge the tenet that democracy is the least bad regime. Political realists, such as Samuel Huntington, and even the party conservatives in China, "warn us that democracy cannot readily be established in poor, developing countries" (15), but the issue is really about timing, not about the desirability of democratization.  By contrast, in Chapter 1, Bell points out "four key problems with electoral democracy: the tyranny of the majority, the tyranny of the minority, the tyranny of the voting community, and the tyranny of competitive individualists" (20). By the first tyranny, he means that the majority of citizens, which has a decisive role in political decision-making, is ignorant of politics, and rationally so. One might argue that in spite of this ignorance, the collective wisdom of the voters should be trusted, but Bell argues that the collective wisdom is wisdom only if the participants are already informed. Unfortunately, the political reality is that those who deliberate on politics don't participate in it, and those who participate in it don't deliberate on it. You could defend one-person-one-vote by arguing that it is a fair procedure, but Bell's retort is: why don't we just flip a coin? Our rejection of this procedure indicates that we do care about desirable consequences, which the majority of ignorant voters doesn't deliver. The second problem is the dominance of the super rich that results from increasing economic inequality. In spite of the lack of economic and political mobility, Americans somehow manage to believe the opposite, which, to Bell, is but an illusion. The third problem is that voters of a state can decide about affairs that have repercussions beyond the state and its citizens, such as climate change and torture of enemy combatants and alleged terrorists. The last problem derives from Bell's belief that the fierce individualist competition in democratic politics is the root cause of smear campaigns and partisan politics, so that the value of harmony, which is taken seriously by Confucianism and Confucian states, is ignored.

Bell suggests that the contemporary Chinese regime, especially its meritocracy, may address some of the problems of electoral democracy. But an issue is whether the Chinese regime would be better than electoral democracy, even if it did better address these problems. But Bell considers discussing the Chinese regime (maybe in a slightly idealized form) worthwhile for the following reasons. First, from Chapter 2, we can at least see that electoral democracy is not clearly better than other alternatives. Second, the Chinese regime offers a real-world model of meritocracy rather than some imagined regime that may be easily dismissed as unrealistic. Third, China's one-party rule is not about to collapse soon, and to discuss its merits and defects can at least help understand and improve on Chinese politics, which has clear benefits.

In Chapter 2, Bell discusses an issue key to meritocracy: how to select leaders on the basis of their merits. There are a lot of discussions of leadership in business, but they don't fully apply to the political case because leaders in business tend to have simpler goals (making profit being the most important) than leaders in politics. One method of selection Bell suggests is an updated form of traditional Chinese keju, "the public service examinations (misleadingly translated as 'civil service examinations')" (78), which tends to focus on the candidate's intellectual capacity. The social skills of political leaders also matter but are hard to measure. Bell suggests that we should take seriously traits that reveal one's social skills, such as age and gender. Another political merit is virtue. Tests on classics that are full of the celebration of virtues help because these classics could tacitly shape one's character. War heroes or those who devote themselves to non-profit organizations also tend to be virtuous. Most importantly, an evaluation by peers could be a very good way to measure one's virtues.

In Chapter 3, Bell deals with a few problems with political meritocracy and proposes solutions. The first issue is corruption, and his solutions include the rule of law, freedom of speech, law enforcement, the market-based salary system, and moral cultivation. The last item has also been emphasized by some Chinese communists, but according to Bell, this came from the Confucian tradition rather than the Marxist tradition, which doesn't pay much attention to moral cultivation. To Bell's regret, "the party has yet to take the formal step of officially replacing communism with Confucianism" (124).

The second issue is ossification, and as examples, he mentions the problem that the political elites in Singapore and France lack sympathy and are full of arrogance toward the masses. The solutions he proposes are strengthening sympathy and humility, including in the political elites those from different backgrounds or sending the best and the brightest to poor regions for a few years as part of their training, and most importantly, promoting economic equality that would close the gap between the elites and the masses. Different merits should be sought in the selection procedure for different situations. For this to happen, there also needs to be sufficient freedom of speech to allow open discussions and experiments in attracting people with different kinds of merits through different channels. Equally important, the central government needs to be able to put successful experiments from one region into national practice.

The third issue is legitimacy. Bell argues that one-person-one-vote is not the only source of legitimacy. In non-democracies, there can be other sources of legitimacy. One is nationalism. The nationalism the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has used is resentment-based, telling the people how China was humiliated by the West and has been saved by the CCP. This nationalism can be toxic, and it has recently been transformed, though not completely, into a pride-based nationalism that is rooted in the re-embrace of traditions. The second source is performance. But this is risky and doesn't guarantee stability because the CCP's legitimacy will be in danger if the Chinese economy goes bad and because economic development has always led to pressure for democratization. The third source is the recognition of the inner worth of political meritocracy. A problem with this is the discontent of those who fail in the meritocratic selection process. In traditional China, those who failed to make to the top of the meritocratic ladder could still enjoy social and political roles in local communities and were thus absorbed into the system, which Bell welcomes. There should also be a stronger recognition of the value of those who are not in the meritocratic system. More participation by the people helps as well. "Ultimately, the only way is to show without a shadow of doubt that the people support political meritocracy. In other words, democracy may be necessary to legitimize meritocracy" (150).

Therefore, in order to defend the real-world political meritocracy, Bell is led to discuss the reconciliation between democracy and meritocracy, which then leads to the discussion of three ideal models. The first model is to combine democracy and meritocracy at the level of voters, meaning plural voting, which was proposed by Mill and suggested by Lee Kuan Yew. But voters with fewer votes would feel insulted, and plural voting may perpetuate the dominance of those with more votes and thus lead to corruption, for politicians would give extra votes to their own kind and would do special favors to those with extra votes. An objective and reliable procedure to determine who should get how many votes is also elusive.

The second model is a hybrid of democracy and meritocracy, which can be implemented by a bicameral structure with a house of "meritocrats," a model Bell himself championed before. He discusses the proposals made by Sun Yat-sen, Friedrich Hayek, and Jiang Qing, as well as the English House of Lords, and argues that the meritocratic house will be overshadowed by the democratically elected house when people enjoy a sense of empowerment through one-person-one-vote. East Asian societies cannot bet on the meritocratic heritage because Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan have all embraced electoral democracy instead of a Confucian hybrid regime.

The third model is democracy on the bottom, and meritocracy on top (through selections that are discussed in Chapter 2).  In the Concluding Remarks, Bell also adds a middle level that allows experiments in combining meritocracy and democracy.  He calls this three-level structure the China model. But in order for meritocracy on top to work, the potential candidates, when going through a long period of training, need guarantees that their training will be rewarded. This means that one-party rule is a pre-condition. Then, the problem of the legitimacy of such a meritocracy can only be ultimately solved by a referendum that can render legitimacy to this regime for a long period of time (say, 50 years) until the next referendum.

In the Concluding Remarks, Bell first discusses the defects of the China model in reality, and suggests ways to correct them. Then he speculates on whether this model can be exported. Being a good communitarian, he thinks that this model is rooted in history, culture, and the fact that the Chinese government is very powerful, and so maybe it can only be exported partially. He also argues that for China to be a model for the rest of the world, the Chinese government needs to be less oppressive and more tolerant. In addition to the replacement of communism with Confucianism, he also suggests that the CCP talk the talk, that is, change its name to "the Chinese Meritocratic Union." There are also two appendixes available on line. One of them is a Harmony Index that ranks countries according to factors that would make a society harmonious, which is extremely innovative and provocative.

As mentioned earlier, Bell's China model is based on observations of traditional Chinese regimes, the contemporary Chinese regime, and Confucian ideas. The scope of these  observations is impressive and they often offer interesting perspectives, but it is only natural that many of them are controversial. Moreover, the diversity of the sources Bell draws from in order to present the China model also leads to the issue of whether these sources can be used to present a consistent picture. Most importantly, there is a danger of marrying one's normative proposal too closely to the apparent success of the contemporary Chinese regime. He has reasons to do so. As he acknowledges, he was "ruthless savaged by critics, accused of being everything from an apologist for the CCP to an agent for Goldman Sachs (my wife's employer)" (12), which is a motive for him to write a book offering detailed and nuanced argumentation.

But this book has also been ruthlessly savaged by (some) critics with similar accusations. Many of these critics sound like ideologues. Their belief in the alleged open society of liberal democracy is closed to open discussions. To them, anyone who dares to challenge the desirability of liberal democracy must be either foolish or evil. They owe us an explanation about why the West has been failing in so many fronts, and China has been doing relatively well. Moreover, Bell is not painting a purely rosy picture of China, and he offers critical remarks on the Chinese regime. Nonetheless, I feel that Bell gives too much credit to the present Chinese regime and not enough to criticisms of it. While criticizing the end-of-history view about liberal democracy, he himself seems to think that China will continue to be successful under the present Chinese regime, with its present way of doing politics. I am not that optimistic.

I share with Bell many of his criticisms of contemporary liberal democracy and many of his normative proposals. But some of his ideas seem somewhat one-sided. For example, he argues that to have one-party-rule is essential to meritocratic selection, but I think the key is really that when one's party is not in power, the meritocrat-in-training can find meaningful employment, which presupposes different channels for the politically talented and their mobility in society -- something American society does offer and the Chinese authority has been calling for recently. Also, his claim that American federalism wouldn't work as well as the middle-level experimentation in his China model sounds arbitrary to me. As for the general methodology, I think that a safer ground is to go back to one or two Confucian thinkers or texts, tease out the political models they would advocate, update them to the contemporary settings, and then defend their desirability. Other Confucian texts and practices in traditional China should only be used when they are possible illustrations of this model.

On this basis, I have defended a hybrid model in which, with the rule of law and basic liberties, there is pure electoral democracy at the bottom, quasi-autonomy in the middle (which, in traditional Chinese centralized government, is expressed by Confucians' support to "feudalism"), and the combination of democracy and meritocracy on top. This model is based on a coherent set of Confucian ideas (mostly from Mencius) and is insulated from the ups and downs of a real-world regime thanks to its normative nature. Bell criticizes the viability of such a regime by arguing that the democratic element on top will eventually erode the meritocratic one. But his own China model also has to derive legitimacy from a referendum that takes place every 50 years or so. This arrangement can be challenged, especially when this model keeps failing. Bell's answer is that performance is not a stable ground for legitimacy, and education helps. But then why can't we educate people to see the beauty of the hybrid regime on top? Yes, even East Asian countries have gone down the road of pure electoral democracy, but maybe this is because electoral democracy has appeared to be the sole winner. But the wind has turned a bit, and there is a hope for an open-minded search for better models. The China model is one possible candidate, but by that, I don't mean one based on the real-world contemporary Chinese regime, but on the one envisioned by Mencius and other Confucian philosophers.

[1] Alums from Peking University, myself included, would be quick to point out, with scorn and self-righteousness, that this is just typical of Tsinghua, an engineering school that produces technocrats and careerists.

 

简介(第 1-13 页)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.5

2013 年 10 月,一段来源不明的精美卡通视频在网上疯传,两周内观看次数超过一千万。该视频在美国联邦政府关闭时发布,对比了不同国家领导人的选择。 它描绘了美国总统巴拉克·奥巴马(Barack Obama)在数亿美元竞选资金的帮助下迅速崛起,并以一人一票的方式在全国范围内的全国选举中取得胜利。 这个过程被称为“民主”。 它还描绘了习近平主席数十年来登上中国权力顶峰的历程:他的……

第一章 民主是最不坏的政治制度吗?(第 14-62 页)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.6

现代西方社会是多元化的,这是不言而喻的。 我们对所有事情都争论不休,但似乎对任何事情都没有达成一致。 事实上,我们确实同意一件事:我们应该通过一人一票来选择我们的政治领导人。 选举民主在现代西方社会中几乎占据了神圣的地位。 我们可以质疑对上帝的信仰,而不会被指责为失去了道德指南针,但同样的宽容并不适用于那些质疑一个人、一票的信仰的人; 他们几乎不可避免地被贴上了“坏”独裁政权的辩护者的标签。

第二章论贤能政治中优秀领导人的选拔(第63-109页)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.7

20世纪90年代初,一些亚洲官员及其支持者提出了“亚洲价值观”的概念,主张亚洲社会不应采用自由民主的政治价值观和做法。 正如新加坡前总理李光耀所说:“亚洲人毫不怀疑,一个社会利益优先于个人利益的社会比美国的个人主义更适合他们。” 此类主张之所以引起国际关注,主要是因为东方 亚洲领导人似乎正在主持联合国人类发展报告所称的“二十世纪最持续的发展奇迹……

第三章政治精英政治出了什么问题(第110-150页)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.8

从理论上讲,政治贤能政治听起来是个好主意。 当然,政治制度的设计应该选择能力和德行优越的统治者。 谁愿意被无能和腐败的统治者统治? 但如果在一个由具有不同价值观和利益的不完美的人组成的世界中争夺稀缺资源,那么好的想法可能会是灾难性的。 大跃进似乎是个好主意——让我们跳过竞争性的个人主义资本主义,直接进入一个物质丰富、人人平等的世界——但它导致了一场饥荒,导致数千万人……

第四章民主精英政治的三种模式(第151-178页)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.9

政治贤能政治—即政治制度应该旨在选择和提拔具有卓越能力和美德的领导人的想法——乍一听听起来有点可疑。柏拉图和孔子都主张一种有效地将多数人排除在政治权力之外的政治贤能政治形式。然而,如今没有人主张建立一个纯粹的精英政治共同体。 一方面,很难说服人们他们应该完全被排除在政治权力之外。柏拉图本人认识到有必要传播一个“崇高的谎言”,即守护者应该拥有绝对的权力,因为他们的灵魂里有黄金,不像……

结论性思考:实现中国模式(第179-198页)
https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt1q1xrbj.10

"中国模式”这个词被广泛用来描述20世纪70年代末改革开放以来中国的经济发展和治理方式。 虽然这个词对不同的人有不同的含义,但它通常指的是中国在强调政治稳定高于一切的威权一党国家的保护伞下建立自由市场资本主义的方法。 简而言之,中国模式是经济自由和政治压迫的结合体。²但试图从这两个特征来理解当代中国是极具误导性的。 作为一种经济模式,中国确实...

《贤能政治》

副标题: 为什么尚贤制比选举民主制更适合中国
原作名: The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy
作者: [加] 贝淡宁 / Daniel A. Bell 译者: 吴万伟 出版年: 2016-9-16 页数: 459 定价: 69

内容简介

选举民主制是判断中国政治进步的标准吗?一人一票的选举民主为何很难遴选出优秀的领导者?中国的尚贤制能够给西方社会带来哪些启示?政治尚贤制怎样与民主制有机地结合起来?这是一部系统阐释政治尚贤制这一中国政治模式的开山之作,同时也是一部深入探索西方民主制之外的政治治理模式的著作。

在本书中,全球著名政治学者贝淡宁认为,中国选贤任能的政治尚贤制有着深远的历史渊源,影响了过去几十年的社会变革,也比较适合面临复杂政治、社会和经济问题的大国。民意调查也表明,政治尚贤制获得了充分的民众支持。因此,政治尚贤制在中国是选举民主制的一种替代选择。

长久以来,学界、政界和舆论界一直以民主制的视角研判中国的政治治理制度,认为只有以一人一票为基础的选举制度是好的,其他一切政治体制都是专制统治。然而在当前诸多实行选举制的国家中,财富和资本集团的利益都掌控着不成比例的权力,美国的大选甚至被称为“一美元一票”,而非一人一票。贝淡宁认为,中国的政治尚贤制不仅能选拔出能力超群的领导者,而且如此选拔出的领导者更具长远眼光和全局意识,能够做出更加具有说服力的政治决断。政治尚贤制比西方的民主制更适合像中国这样的大国,它能够有效规避民主选举制的主要缺陷。

贝淡宁还试图用政治尚贤制的理想来比照中国的现实,认为中国要真正实现在道德上可取、政治上稳定的尚贤制度,还有很长的一段路要走。本书最后谏言,只有真正做到“上层尚贤,中间实验和基层民主”,中国模式的贤能政治才能成为21世纪备受全球瞩目的政治发展模式。

编辑推荐

《贤能政治:为什么尚贤制比选举民主制更适合中国》荣获“《金融时报》2015年年度图书”和“《卫报》2015年年度zui佳假日图书”。全球著名政治学者首次探讨中西方政治模式的集大成之作。该书获得弗兰西斯•福山、郑永年、约瑟夫•奈、余永定、潘维、阎学通、张维为等数十位中外专家联名推荐。英文原版出版后随即得到广泛关注和推荐,是将有可能为中西方政府官员选拔制度提供参考的权威之作。

名人推荐

中国是否创立了真正新颖的治理模式?这个模式运行效果如何?这些都是关键的问题。贝淡宁对中国模式的评估在许多读者看来是积极的、乐观的,评价之高令人吃惊。不过,论证过程谨慎扎实,值得任何一位研究当今中国的读者认真阅读和思考。

詹姆斯•法洛斯(James Fallows)

《中国空降兵》的作者

对许多西方读者来说,贝淡宁的书很难让人消化,因为它质疑“根本真理”。对中国读者来说,贝淡宁的书使其相信至少有些西方人理解他们。多个世纪以来,中国人最看重的就是其考试制度,因为它既能选拔贤能又比较客观。这种对个人成就的关注总是与为共同体服务的道德义务结合起来。《贤能政治》解释了这种双重性如何在当代中国继续运行。

杨荣文

新加坡前任外交部部长

在西方国家,连对一人一票原则的质疑都可能招来诅咒,但贝淡宁恰恰这样做了。他根据儒家的精神,强烈支持贤能政治,认为民主选举不能解决我们最紧迫的问题。我们可以从这本极具挑衅性的书中学到很多东西。

马蒂亚斯•里斯(Mattias Risse)

哈佛大学教授

很少有像这本书这样分析如此透彻、话题如此及时、思考与当今现实如此相关的著作。贝淡宁将其在西方接受的学术智慧训练和在中国的教学和研究经验结合起来,解释了中国独特的政治尚贤制的发展。任何一位对中国感兴趣和关心西方民主发展的人都应该阅读一下这本让人大开眼界的著作。

郑永年

新加坡国立大学东亚研究所所长

《贤能政治》一书非常及时,独创性强而且十分重要。基于作者对当今政治理论的精炼把握和对中国不断变化的政治制度的多种特征的深刻认识,这本书将成为学习政治的学生、汉学家和所有对中国崛起感兴趣的人争相阅读的畅销书。

尤锐 (Yuri Pines)

《永远的帝国》的作者

媒体推荐

贝淡宁用通俗流畅的文笔提出了一个挑战传统思想的问题—民主还是尚贤。他利用其在当代中国的教学和生活经验带领读者回顾和思考政治哲学中一些最根本的问题。我发现贝淡宁提出的问题发人深省,引人入胜。

吉迪恩•拉赫曼(Gideon Rachman)

《金融时报》

贝淡宁写了一本引人入胜的著作。思想开放的读者会发现这本书对中国政治有充满智慧的了解,同样宝贵的是它会迫使读者反思自己对民主的忠诚。《贤能政治》不仅仅是为了那些想要更好地了解中国的人写的。它让我重新思考西方治理体系有哪些优势和劣势。这是一本可读性很强的书,让人获益良多。

克莱夫•克鲁克(Clive Crook)

彭博新闻社

贝淡宁以令人信服的论据非常有意义地论述了,为什么外部世界应该更加深刻地思考中国在治理国家方面的实践。这本书的文笔清晰、流畅、可读性强。

克里•布朗(Kerry Brown)

贝淡宁:用贤能政治衡量中国体制更合适

来源:环球时报 2015-1-12

儒家文化复兴为中国发展提供道德支撑

  过去30多年来,中国最引人瞩目的文化变革就是传统的复兴。这种复兴既是精心策划的结果,也有自发的因素。20世纪尤其1949年以来,文化呈现出来的一个主要方面就是反传统主义。再往前溯,及至1919年“五四运动”甚至之前,无论金融精英、自由人士、马克思主义者还是无政府主义者,均认为中国贫穷落后,根源之一便是落后的传统文化。

  但过去30年来,中国以及韩国等其他拥有儒家文化传统的东亚国家经历了一场对传统的戏剧性再评估。在此期间,这一地区经济增长迅猛,贫困人口大幅缩减,同时又一直保持着和平稳定。而当人们举目四望、探寻这些国家有何共同点时,答案之一就是它们都继承了儒家传统。尽管过去的叙事基本都是儒家文化阻碍了现代化和经济增长,但现在很多人都认为:儒家文化实际上发挥了促进作用。

  我们正在目睹一种更具历史色彩和人文特征的视角的回归,它更强调教育,注重跨越代际的大家庭伦理。延及政治领域,这种儒家视角促进了有关中国贤能政治传统的价值重估。长期以来,中国人一直认为政治体制的关键在于选拔和擢升具有较强能力、道德品质、社会文化技能并能带领国家前进的领导者。这种视角虽有儒家根源,但现在已然经历现代化的演变,变成中国以及韩国、日本等其他东亚国家经济发展战略的核心。尽管儒家思想在“文化大革命”期间遭到批判,但它现在再次回到舞台中央。如今,儒家核心价值的推广和促进已不仅限于政治治理层面,商业和非盈利性行业也都在这样做。

  贤能政治的发扬还与社会饱受金钱主义的负面影响有关。追逐财富使得人们变得更趋个人主义,脱离更高的理想追求。因此,中国政府层面以及很多知识分子都希望提升社会的责任感,复兴儒家文化正好服务于这一目标。儒家关乎道德和个人责任,无论对于教育体系还是领导者的培养都能提供道德支撑。

贤能政治是更适合中国语境的衡量标准

  当我们试图分析和理解中国时,西方的政治术语很有误导性,因其倾向于将世界划分为好的民主体制和坏的集权体制,而中国往往被归为后者。但事实上,中国有着很大不同,虽然中国的政治体制确有某些威权倾向,但也具有很强的民主特征。过去30年来,世人见证了中国进行了前所未有的改革开放,并且愿意谈论自身存在的问题。笔者在之前出版的著作中使用“垂直民主贤能政治”概念来阐释中国的模式:基层层面充分展现了民主的价值;越往政治决策链的上层追溯,其领导者的擢升就越呈现出贤能政治的特点。

  虽然在中国的理想与现实之间仍有差距,但这种贤能政治标准已在过去30年中激发了备受瞩目的政治改革。笔者认为,就政治进步或倒退的评判标准而言,中国式贤能政治是一个完全胜任的模式。尤其在中国的语境下,贤能政治在有关较长时期内政治进步与否的考察中是比西式自由民主更好的标准。虽然这种看法在中国之外引发一定程度的争议,但在中国内部,强调贤能政治确是知识界和改革派领导者的主流认知。

  归根结底,笔者认为有关政治进步与否的评判并不存在一个放之四海而皆准的标准,“怎样才算是良好政治社会”这个问题有着虽然各自不同但又都趋于合理的解释。其实从柏拉图开始,“美好社会”就存在着各种相互竞争的模式或版本。美国用于衡量政治进步和改革的标准,源自美国宪法所蕴含的民主理想,并且得到其立国先贤们的拥护和标榜。这套标准对美国历史上的许多政治活动都产生了巨大影响。

  虽然在美国的理想和现实之间也存在巨大落差,但其评价现实的标准终究还是源自美国文化中的主流政治理念。对于有着复杂政治哲学历史和理念的中国而言,道理也是如此。这些理念可追溯至始自孔孟时代、贯穿整个中国历史的有关贤能政治的争鸣和辩论。中国的思想家们潜心思考如何选拔能干而且道德高尚的政治领导者以及何种能力和德行最为重要,中国人思索并尝试各种领导者选拔机制,这种传统一直延续到今天。过去30多年来,中国政治领导层的选拔一般是先从公务员考试开始,接着对其在较低层级政府部门的表现加以评估,只有在各行政层级积累了丰富经验,才有可能被拔擢到更高层。这种方式与中国历史上的很多时候相似。

中美应允许对方在政治体制上存在差异

  笔者始终认为,根植于中国文化的这些核心政治理念应该成为评估中国政治进步与否的标准,虽然它们与美国信奉的那套自由主义理念不同。理想与现实之间总有巨大落差,这一点从古至今概莫能外,但其中更根本的问题还是在于把什么当作标准。

  这是中国政府和知识界颇为关心的问题。无论他们喜欢与否,中国的发展都已“震撼世界”,中国也必须在塑造世界方面发挥更加积极的作用,问题在于其是否能以既促进国际和平又容纳分歧的方式发挥作用。绝大多数中国人都认为,世界大国拥有不同形式的政府,不应强制推行任何单一治理模式。在这方面,笔者更为担心的其实是美国。因为美国不仅宣称其民主模式是它自身的最佳选择,同时认为这也应是其他国家和地区的最佳模式。一些美国人甚至想当然地认为除此之外的其他政治体制都是非法的。这种态度当然会让很多致力于建设好政府的中国人感到反感甚或不满。他们会想:轮的着你这个只有几百年历史的国家来教我构建什么样的政治体制么?你们已被一部根本无法应对现代挑战的宪法弄得束手束脚了。

  笔者认为,美中双方应该求同存异,既在共同关注的领域携手努力,也要容许扎根在不同政治语境下的两种政治体制之间存在差异。

  (作者是清华大学哲学系教授,本文由韩国庆熙大学副教授、亚洲研究所所长贝一明采访)

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